Macedonian Tombs Research Articles

Revealing the Internal Structure of the Great Tumulus of Apollonia by Means of Seismic Tomography

ABSTRACTThe Great Tumulus of Apollonia in northern Greece, with a diameter of ~100 m and a height of 19 m, is among the largest of its kind in the region of the ancient kingdom of Macedonia. It is located north of the ancient city of Apollonia and recently became the focus of limited archaeological excavations, which revealed a looted Macedonian tomb. Archaeological findings and other evidence from the tumulus and its surroundings suggest that it may have been used more than once; therefore, the existence of more tombs in its interior is possible. In this work, we investigate the internal structure of the monument by means of 3‐D seismic travel time tomography. Using direct sparse methods, we calculate efficiently the full model resolution matrix that allows us to investigate the robustness of the tomographic model. Our results suggest a complex structure with variable properties between the east and the western side of the tumulus. We also detect several regions that may be associated with additional burial locations or other possible targets of archaeological interest.

Hygrothermal conditions in the tomb of Macridy Bey in the context of restoration, conservation and enhancement works

The main thematic axis of this paper is the measurements obtained in the Macedonian tomb of Macridy Bey (as this tomb is named after its first excavator, Macridy Bey) during restoration and enhancement works, in order to evaluate the hygrothermal conditions prevailing in and around the monument's spaces and, therefore, assess the effectiveness of the new measures applied for its protection against climatic and environmental effects. The microclimatic parameters monitored at positions selected as critical for the investigated issues are the air temperature and relative humidity, as well as the surface temperature. These parameters' monitoring took place on an hourly basis for 18 months. The recorded values were analysed using a two-fold approach: i) examination of the actual recorded values for the monitored quantities, and ii) employment of a “typical” day scheme that contributes to the derivation of assessments free from isolated, possibly randomly occurring cases in point. The indications derived for the applied protective measures were positive (e.g., the transfer of the outdoor temperature and humidity conditions fluctuations into the main spaces of the monument had decreased and no signs of rainwater and groundwater intrusion were found). Apart from the presentation of the environmental conditions prevailing in the tomb, the description of the “methodological” approach, i.e. the strategy followed for the conduction, the elaboration and the interpretation of the recordings in the context of the endeavored assessments at a monument of this type in the conditions to which it is exposed, is another central target of this work.

Virtual accessibility of the Macedonian tomb in Ohrid

Virtual accessibility of the Macedonian tomb in Ohrid

Sustainable management approaches for underground heritage structures threatened by the environment and the human presence

Aiming at protecting and safeguarding cultural heritage for future generations, the concept of sustainability should be applied to the management of monuments and historical sites, considering that the preservation of heritage is included in the UNESCO Sustainable Development Goals. This paper studies the Macedonian tombs in Greece which are monuments of great historic importance and precious educational value. Evaluation of their indoor climatic conditions has shown that the deterioration processes are mainly caused by cyclical changes in temperature and relative humidity when they are exposed to the environment and the visitors. Protection against future deterioration can only be assured through proper interventions to stabilise the microclimate. The purpose of this paper is to show that prior to the final decision-making for protection measures, it is very important to acquire on site recorded data and analyse them using a simulation tool. The proposed methodology can be applied to all Macedonian tombs.

Archaeological anastylosis of two Macedonian tombs in a 3D virtual environment

<p class="VARAbstract">Archaeological restoration of monuments is a practice requiring extreme caution and thorough study. Archaeologists and conservation experts are very reluctant to proceed to restoration and indeed to reconstruction actions without detailed consultation and thought. Nowadays, anastylosis executed on the real object is practically prohibited. Contemporary technologies have provided archaeologists and other conservation experts with the tools to embark on virtual restorations or anastyloses, thus testing various alternatives without physical intervention on the monument itself. In this way, the values of the monuments are respected according to international conventions. In this paper, two such examples of virtual archaeological anastyloses of two important Macedonian tombs in northern Greece are presented. The anastyloses were performed on three-dimensional (3D) models which have been produced using modern digital 3D documentation techniques, such as image-based modelling and terrestrial laser scanning. The reader is introduced to the history and importance –as well as the peculiarities– of the Macedonian tombs. In addition, the two tombs are described in detail mainly from an archaeological point of view The process of field data acquisition and processing to produce the 3D models are described. Simple and more or less standard methods were employed in acquiring the raw data. Processing was carried out using commercial software. The resulting 3D models and other documentation products are assessed for their accuracy and completeness. The decisions for the virtual anastylosis are explained in detail and the actual process is also described. The restored monuments are presented and evaluated by the conservation experts. Thus, it is shown how important virtual anastylosis of monuments is to archaeological researchers, as it enables them to conduct in-depth studies, without actually tampering with the monuments themselves. Digital 3D models are contributing to many disciplines, especially in archaeology, as they enable a wider audience to easily access both archaeological and geometric information as well as offering a high degree of interaction possibilities.</p>

3D DOCUMENTATION AND VIRTUAL ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESTORATION OF MACEDONIAN TOMBS

Abstract. Archaeology as a science is based on finding and displaying the remains of the past. In recent years, with the progress of technology, the science of archeology has been expanding and evolving. Three-dimensional digitization has become an integral part of the archiving, documentation and restoration effort of cultural heritage, offering important benefits in studies for reconstruction and restoration tasks of architectural creations, archaeological sites, historic monuments and objects of art in general. The three-dimensional models are now available for many applications. In this paper such 3D models of two prominent Macedonian tombs in Northern Greece were exploited for their virtual restoration. Virtual restoration of monuments is of special importance to archaeological research, as it provides the necessary tools to investigate alternative solutions to the serious issue of archaeological restoration. These solutions do not interfere with the real monument, thus respecting its value and the international conventions. Digital 3D models have begun to be more beneficial in a science such as archaeology as they offer easy access to both archaeological and geometric information to a wider audience as well as a high degree of interaction possibilities with the user.

Pigments and colours: An inside look at the painted decoration of the Macedonian funerary monuments

The funerary monuments located in the area of ancient Macedonia (Northern Greece), namely the monumental Macedonian tombs, as well as the decorated chamber and cist tombs form a remarkable source of evidence about late Classical and Hellenistic painting. They preserve simple or more elaborate compositions executed with the employment of techniques developed at the end of the 5th and during the 4th centuries BCE.In the framework of the NARNIA Project, an interdisciplinary approach to the study of the painted decoration of these tombs was applied combining archaeological research and archaeometric techniques of material study and characterisation. Different analytical techniques have been used in order to determine the techniques and materials employed in the wall paintings in several funerary structures. Specifically, the surface and stratigraphy of the painting were examined with optical microscopy, polarised light microscopy (PLM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), while the chemical composition of the inorganic materials was determined through the application of micro-X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (μ-XRF), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). Furthermore an investigation of the use of Egyptian blue in the decoration of selected monuments has been conducted through the in situ application of the non-invasive technique which combines visible induced luminescence (VIL) infrared imaging.In the course of this study, the information obtained through the analysis and the review of the literature has revealed the pigments employed in the painted decoration of eighteen funeral monuments. The mainly inorganic colouring materials vary from natural, such as hematite and goethite, calcite and carbon black, to the synthetic Egyptian blue. The coloured arsenal employed by the ancient painters is further enriched by other minerals, such as the red cinnabar and realgar, as well as an arsenic based yellow pigment. Green earth was also used, despite the availability of copper based green minerals. Lastly, the presence of Egyptian blue in the monuments has provided invaluable information regarding the spatial distribution of the pigment and allowed a further comprehension of the decorative motifs.

A Microcosm of Colour and Shine. The Polychromy of Chryselephantine Couches from Ancient Macedonia

The present work examines the polychromy applied to a number of fragmentary ivory small-scale sculptures that served as components of the luxurious decoration of chryselephantine couches from ancient Macedonia. The ivory fragments come from funerary contexts (the tomb of Philip II at Aigai, the Macedonian tomb II of Korinos at Pydna and the Macedonian tomb III of Aghios Athanassios near Thessaloniki), all of which are dated to the last quarter of the fourth century BC. The use of bright pigments on the laboriously executed faces of the figures and their garments, together with the gold leaf applied onto the hair and the background, conveys a powerful effect of polychromy that would have immediately caught the spectator’s eye, enhancing the overall aesthetic and material value of such lavishly decorated furniture. The identification of the pigments and the techniques of their application have been studied with the use of analytical methods (XRF, micro-XRF, XRD and SEM-EDS) and multi spectral imaging (Visible Induced Luminescence).

Alexander, Frankenstein and regular days in the life of a Balkan archaeologist. The experience of the Greek - Albanian Archaeological Expedition at Prespa (Albania), in the years 2009 - 2014

This is a short account of how archaeology and archaeologists could become protagonists of a political psychodrama, very common in an ancient land like the Balkans. Old and rich heritages often are responsible for the bad relations occurred among people who in reality have nothing to divide except from the ghosts of presumed ancient ancestors. Alexander described here is not the King of Macedonia and Asia but his Frankensteinish version, which was created, fed and grown like a Prague‟s Golem in order to be used as a puppet in the hands of able manipulators. The case of the Greek – Albanian Archaeological Expedition on the island of Maligrad, in the Tri – National zone of Prespa, is given as an example of how things work some times in our days, in places which have never been something else than “grey zones” on the map. The case of the “recent” discovery of the Macedonian tomb at Amphipolis, Greece, is given here as a counter balance to the case of Maligrad. The polemic of the article is not focusing on cultural or demographic minorities of any place in the Balkans but on the ill use of our common historical heritage by political authorities.

Locating Macedonian tombs using predictive modelling

Abstract Northern Greece is the main region where more than 90 Macedonian tombs, dated in the late classical and Hellenistic period, have been discovered. Geospatial data processing technologies (GIS), predictive modelling techniques and fuzzy logic were applied to the study area in order to create a predictive model that would be able to provide map regions assigned with specified probability of Macedonian tombs’ occurrence. The model was tested extensively and was validated using a commonly used predictive gain. The results and the evaluation of the model proved the efficiency of its predictive ability in providing answers to a series of questions related to the problem at hand (archaeological research, cultural resource management and protection, land use, etc.).

Gas chromatographic–mass spectrometric characterisation of plant gums in samples from painted works of art

This paper presents an analytical GC–MS procedure to study the chemical composition of plant gums, determining aldoses and uronic acids in one step. The procedure is based on the silylation of aldoses and uronic acids, released from plant gums by microwave assisted hydrolysis, and previously converted into the corresponding diethyl-dithioacetals and diethyl-dithioacetal lactones. Using this method only one peak for each compound is obtained, thus providing simple and highly reproducible chromatograms. The analytical procedure was optimised using reference samples of raw plant gums (arabic, karaya, ghatti, guar, locust bean and tragacanth, cherry, plum and peach gums), commercial watercolours and paint layers prepared according to ancient recipes at the Opificio delle Pietre Dure of Florence (Italy). To identify gum media in samples of unknown composition, a decisional schema for the gum identification and the principal component analysis of the relative sugar percentage contents were employed. The procedure was used to study samples collected from wall paintings from Macedonian tombs (4th–3rd centuries bc) and from the Mycenaean “Palace of Nestor” (13th century bc) in Pylos, Greece. The presence of carbohydrates was ascertained and plant gum binders (fruit and a mixture of tragacanth and fruit tree gums) were identified in some of the samples.

New knowledge versus consensus – a critical note on their relationship based on the debate concerning the use of barrel-vaults in Macedonian tombs

The association of Tomb II at Vergina, Greece, with Philip II initiated a debate concerning the use of barrel-vaults in Macedonian tombs. The accepted theory at the time held that, since no Macedonian tomb was dated prior to the last quarter of the 4th century BC, Macedonians copied the barrel-vault from the Persians after the military campaign of Alexander the Great in Asia, and therefore Tomb II should be dated to a later period. After an intense dispute, fresh archaeological evidence proved that this theory was false. This article examines the ways we structure knowledge in archaeology from hypothesis to theory that can develop to consensus, and how later consensus exercises a conservative influence on the production of new knowledge. New evidence that contradicts consensual theories is approached with stronger hostility and is confronted with higher demands of confirmation. I suggest that the same amount of scrutiny should be applied to the established theories, which are not unchangeable representations of reality, but conventionally shared property of archaeologists.

Ion chromatography characterization of polysaccharides in ancient wall paintings

An analytical procedure for the characterisation of polysaccharides and the identification of plant gums in old polychrome samples is described. The procedure is based on hydrolysis with 2 M trifluoroacetic acid assisted by microwaves (20 min, 120 °C, 500 W), clean-up of the hydrolysate by an ion-exchange resin, and analysis by high-performance anion-exchange chromatography with pulsed amperometric detection. Using this method the hydrolysis time was reduced to 20 min and the chromatographic separation of seven monosaccharides (fucose, rhamnose, arabinose, galactose, glucose, mannose, xylose) and two uronic acids (galacturonic and glucuronic) was achieved in 40 min. The whole analytical procedure allows sugar determination in plant gums at picomole levels, with an average recovery of 72% with an RSD of 8% as tested on arabic gum. The analytical procedure was tested with several raw gums, watercolour samples and reference painting specimens prepared according to old recipes at the Opificio delle Pietre Dure of Florence (Italian Ministry of Cultural Heritage, Italy). All the data collected expressed in relative sugar percentage contents were submitted to principal components analysis for gum identification: five groups were spatially separated and this enabled the identification of arabic, tragacanth, karaya, cherry+ghatty, and guar+locust bean gum. Wall painting samples from Macedonian tombs (Greece) of the 4th–3rd Centuries B.C., processed by the suggested method, showed the presence of a complex paint media mainly consisting of tragacanth and fruit tree gums. Moreover, starch had probably been added to plaster as highlighted by the presence of a huge amount of glucose.

Influence of the geological environment on the stability of monuments. Experience from Greece

ln the present investigation some geological factors of failure and intervention methods are applied in two representative monuments from Northern Greece. These examples refer to a) the slope stability analysis of the rock-mass where the Simonos Petra Monastery, in Mount Athos is built and b) influence of the groundwater conditions on both the weathering of the frescos and the stability of the Lefkadia Macedonian Tombs in N. Greece.

The Tomb of Lyson and Kallikles: A Painted Macedonian Tomb. By Stella G. Miller.

Previous articleNext article No AccessBook ReviewsThe Tomb of Lyson and Kallikles: A Painted Macedonian Tomb. By Stella G. Miller.Eugene N. BorzaEugene N. Borza Search for more articles by this author PDFPDF PLUS Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditEmail SectionsMoreDetailsFiguresReferencesCited by American Journal of Archaeology Volume 99, Number 1January 1995 The journal of the Archaeological Institute of America Views: 1Total views on this site Article DOIhttps://doi.org/10.2307/506895 Views: 1Total views on this site Copyright © 1995 by the Archaeological Institute of America. All rights reserved.PDF download Crossref reports no articles citing this article.

Seeing stars: character and identity in the landscapes of modern Macedonia

In 1978, the excavation of the Macedonian royal tombs at Vergina in north Greece gave a more physical aspect to the historical place of Philip and of Alexander the Great. These archaeological finds now have an active role in the region's politics, where the present is again being re-made by the pictures of the past.

Aegae: Determining the Site of the First Capital of the Macedonians

Up until 1968 there were essentially two views concerning the location of Aegae. The first was that the city was located at present-day Edessa and that it bore two names—Aegae and Edessa. The second view maintained that Aegae and Edessa were two distinct cities; the location of the former, however, was not clearly specified. In 1968, N. G. L. Hammond proposed that Aegae was located at Palatitsia-Vergina where the remains of a palace, two Macedonian tombs, and a great number of graves had been excavated. Following the now well known discoveries at Vergina beginning in 1977 (unplundered Macedonian tombs, a theater, sanctuaries, etc.), scholars appear to have become convinced that Aegae and the Macedonian royal cemetery were located at Vergina. I propose that Aegae cannot be identified with Vergina. Consequently, the royal cemetery must be sought elsewhere. This conclusion is supported by topographic evidence, ancient testimony, and recent archaeological discoveries. In my view, Aegae was located on the eastern, gentle slopes of Mount Bermium, in the area of Kopanos of Naousa.

The Cremated Remains From Tombs II and III at Nea Mihaniona and Tomb Beta At Derveni

Death may be the great leveller, but some families can mark the event more spectacularly than others. In an attempt to set the royal burials at Vergina into some form of mortuary context, the cremated remains from three rich, non-royal 4th-century Macedonian tombs – Nea Mihaniona II and III and Derveni Beta – were studied with an eye on both biology and mortuary practices. This investigation showed that: (i) a neonate cremated and buried with its mother can survive both events remarkably well, with important consequences for the Vergina debate; (ii) the Derveni crater contained two individuals; (iii) the Nea Mihaniona, Derveni Beta, Vergina II antechamber, Vergina III and Phoinikas (report in preparation) cremations form a homogeneous group in terms of fragment size and weight. This sets them midway between (a) their far less substantial Dark Age forebears and (b) the unique whole cremated skeleton from the main chamber of Vergina Tomb II.

Some Reflections on the Macedonian Tombs

The excavation of the Royal Tombs at Vergina has led to discussion of problems posed by them. This paper discusses problems of chronology, and the difficulties of deducing date purely from consideration of the architectural features of the Macedonian tombs. It also considers the use of the vault to roof them, and argues that this was developed in Macedonia itself, through the enlargement of cist tombs to meet the particular needs posed by the larger tombs of the fourth century BC. Finally, it discusses the architectural embellishment of the façades.

The Royal Macedonian Tombs and the Paraphernalia of Alexander the Great

THE FOLLOWING PAPER raises two related points about the identification of the remains in the royal Macedonian tombs in the great tumulus at Vergina (ancient Aegae). One is that the evidence now seems to point toward a date for Tomb II later than the death of Philip II. The other is that some of the materials found within that tomb may have belonged to Alexander the Great.' Following the chronology suggested by the excavator-that all three tombs belong to about the last third of the fourth century B.c.-only a few royal personages were eligible by birth, status, or marriage for burial at Aegae in that era.2 If the identification of the human remains in Tomb III as a teenaged male is correct, the structure is probably the final resting place of Alexander IV, son of the Conqueror and the Bactrian princess, Roxane (see Endnote A). He was the last Argead, and his murder by Cassander ca 310 marks the end of the dynasty. The male-female burial in Tomb II is the only main chamber-antechamber double burial thus far recovered from a Macedonian tomb. There are only two sets of candidates for this unusual interment: Philip II and his wife, Cleopatra, and Philip III Arrhidaeus and his wife, Eurydice. Immediately following Philip II's assassination in 336, Alexander was declared king, and went off to put down frontier rebellions. In his absence, Olympias, Alexan-