MAC Layer Research Articles

Novel Denial-of-Service Attacks Against LoRaWAN on MAC Layer

Novel Denial-of-Service Attacks Against LoRaWAN on MAC Layer

Proposed Mutual Exclusion MAC Protocol for MANET to Overcome Hidden and Exposed Terminal Problem

Mobile Adhoc Network (MANET) is a kind of wireless transmission network could able to form the communication network without need of any basic infrastructure with all the communication nodes can able to move freely ad communication could be done b forwarding the received packet from one node to another nodes in order to reach until the desired destination node found. One of the major challenges in MANET is nodes can move freely from one region to another region where the possibilities route failure and collision among the node. Especially the of Hidden and exposed node problem is the major challenges in the MANET which could not able to define the permanent solution to resolve the issue. This research article focus on hidden and Exposed terminal problem in MAC layer and proposed the new protocol called the Mutual Exclusion MAC protocol (ME- MAC) which support to solve the Hidden and Exposed Terminal issue in MAC layer.

An efficient self-attention-based conditional variational auto-encoder generative adversarial networks based multipath cross-layer design routing paradigm for MANET

Battery life is often a helpful resource for portable devices in MANET (Mobile Ad Hoc Network). When creating control methods, energy efficiency with network lifespan is considered. However, creating a routing method that is energy-efficient requires taking into account a variety of nodes from various layers, including channel assumptions, total traffic load, and remaining energy. The traditional layered technique cannot tackle power-relevant problems that may affect every stack layers. In this manuscript, Self-Attention-Based Conditional Variational Auto-Encoder Generative Adversarial Networks is proposed for enabling cross-layer routing over Mobile Ad Hoc Network (SACVAEGAN-MCLD-MANET). This Self-Attention-Based Conditional Variational Auto-Encoder Generative Adversarial Networks (SACVAEGAN) choose the optimum path by deeming given objective functions: residual energy cost of communication, Data Success Rate (DSR), mobility. In which, energy, DSR, mobility are computed through network layer. MAC layer's hesitating fuzzy linguistic bi-objective clustering technique (HFLBC) reduces the energy consumption brought on by contentions. The nodes with lesser residual energy must complete the immediate data transfer, while the path with greater contention must wait. As a result, this HFLBC is used to reduce energy use and enhance data transmission. Adaptability is produced using the knowledge that is shared among the different layers. The proposed method is done in Network Simulator-2.34, its efficacy is analyzed under certain performance metrics, like energy consumption, Packet Delivery Ratio, end-end delay, routing overhead, network lifetime, PLR, throughput. The proposed approach provides 23.21%, 15.64%, 19.96% higher packet delivery ratio and 16.63%, 17.29%, 6.47% lower delay compared with existing methods, like Sustainable Multiple path Routing for Enhancing Cross-Layer Presentation utilizing Energy Centric Tunicate Swarm Approach in MANET (ECTSA-MCLD-MANET), Cross-Layer adaptive data scheduling policy in mobile ad-hoc networks (ADSP-MCLD-MANET) and Cross-Layer Design Based N-ary Huffman Coding for DSDV Routing Protocol Analysis in mobile ad-hoc networks (NAHC-MCLD-MANET) respectively.

VIDEO SENSOR OVER ULTRA-LOW POWER RELAY WIRELESS NETWORKS

Ultra-low-power wireless networks have a vast array of potential applications, which are becoming increasingly achievable as technology gets smaller. Before these systems can be used to their full potential, however, efficient methods of data transfer are imperative in order to keep power consumption low while allowing the devices to cooperate as one unit or group. The transfer of large files, such as image data, presents a particular challenge because of the size limits imposed by the 802.15.4 MAC protocol. Operating sensory nodes at larger distances than normal also results in significant data loss. This paper presents a solution to this issue using a modified sensor network that includes nodes dedicated to listening for packet recovery. A set of algorithms is devised in order to allow nodes to detect missing data from a source as well as offer the ability to request that missing data from one of the dedicated relay nodes. The methods described were tested with the iMote2 device and found to almost double the distance at which two nodes can be placed from each other while still maintaining reliable data transfer. It was also concluded that the Linux driver in charge of passing values from the 802.15.4 chip to the MAC layer does not properly pass the Cyclical Redundancy Check (CRC) result into the MAC frame. As a result, it is not possible to filter out corrupt data at the application layer.

Time-Sensitive Networking to Improve the Performance of Distributed Functional Safety Systems Implemented over Wi-Fi.

Industry 4.0 has significantly improved the industrial manufacturing scenario in recent years. The Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) enables the creation of globally interconnected smart factories, where constituent elements seamlessly exchange information. Industry 5.0 has further complemented these achievements, as it focuses on a human-centric approach where humans become part of this network of things, leading to a robust human-machine interaction. In this distributed, dynamic, and highly interconnected environment, functional safety is essential for adequately protecting people and machinery. The increasing availability of wireless networks makes it possible to implement distributed and flexible functional safety systems. However, such networks are known for introducing unwanted delays that can lead to safety performance degradation due to their inherent uncertainty. In this context, the Time-Sensitive Networking (TSN) standards present an attractive prospect for enhancing and ensuring acceptable behaviors. The research presented in this paper deals with the introduction of TSN to implement functional safety protocols for wireless networks. Among the available solutions, we selected Wi-Fi since it is a widespread network, often considered and deployed for industrial applications. The introduction of a reference functional safety protocol is detailed, along with an analysis of how TSN can enhance its behavior by evaluating relevant performance indexes. The evaluation pertains to a standard case study of an industrial warehouse, tested through practical simulations. The results demonstrate that TSN provides notable advantages, but it requires meticulous coordination with the Wi-Fi MAC layer protocol to guarantee improved performance.

Navigating Routing Challenges in Internet of Things (IoT): A Focus on Routing Protocols and Wireless Sensor Networks

This paper states the routing issues in the Internet of Things (IoT). The main point of focus is especially on routing protocols in IoT and wireless sensor networks (WSN). “Everything which is connected to the internet is alive”, is going to be the new rule for the future. The future is the Internet of Things (IoT), the world is changing every day with new technologies and inventions. The Internet of Things (IoT) has known as a future scenario of technology in human life. IoT expands the concept of the Internet from a network of rather homogenous devices such as computers to a network of heterogeneous devices such as home appliances and the conventional network is mostly replaced with IoT. Devices are the main users of the IoT framework an important part is IEEE 802.15.4, a standard that operates at the PHY layer and MAC layer of IoT devices. The IoT Ecosystem includes a large number of integrated heterogeneous low-power, low-cost devices, and secure connections are needed between them [15]. They communicate with each other to gather, share and forward the information in a multi-hop manner, this requires a complex routing between them. WSN, new technology in the IoT system comprised of a large collection of sensors, a mesh network can be used to individually gather data and send data through a router to the internet in an IoT system [6]. an enormous number of sensors are used and its growth is also fast, they are collecting inexperienced data and transforming it into meaningful and useful information. considering the full usability of these devices and a huge number of them, produce routing challenges [16]. Routing in IoT is the most critical part because we are working with devices that have restricted device resources. the optimum goal is to have enhanced routing protocols and efficient performance with such limited resource devices [15, 18].

Cross layer protocol architecture for spectrum‐based routing in cognitive radio networks

AbstractNew cell phone services and apps consume more spectrum. Wireless spectrum allows services and apps to communicate with one another. Wi‐Fi quality is improved via smart spectrum usage and new CRT services. The use of spectrum is beneficial. Cross‐layer architecture improves the energy efficiency of wireless networks. System performance is improved by connecting protocol layers. Cross‐layer configuration does not introduce layer functionality into a network. By protecting networks, cross‐layer design increases communication. C‐LNRD uses self‐determined time slots to promote communication. Agents that collect information. At each level, the monitoring agent monitors traffic, time, and topology. Each layer of agents has its own database. Data is received by the network, MAC, and physical layers. Based on its measurements, each node grants trust. Routes were altered. PR ATTACK does not have RTS, CTS, or RREQ to reduce false positives. Spectrum allocation is improved via cognitive radio and learning technologies. Adaptive Cognitive Radio Networks are created using AI, GA, Fuzzy Logic, and Game Theory (ACRN). DSA creates high‐bandwidth MCRNs. This research looks at MCRNs in order to optimise spectrum usage, throughput, routing delay, and overhead. Multihop, the proposed approach by CRN takes into account spectrum awareness, quality route establishment, and route maintenance in the event that a connection fails due to spectrum or a node transfer. New strategies improve the cross‐layer network protocols of MCRN. Learners gain from spectrum models. Sensors and routers are linked by layers. The proposed routing improves both performance and spectrum use.

Packets-to-Prediction: An Unobtrusive Mechanism for Identifying Coarse-Grained Sleep Patterns with WiFi MAC Layer Traffic.

A good night's sleep is of the utmost importance for the seamless execution of our cognitive capabilities. Unfortunately, the research shows that one-third of the US adult population is severely sleep deprived. With college students as our focused group, we devised a contactless, unobtrusive mechanism to detect sleep patterns, which, contrary to existing sensor-based solutions, does not require the subject to put on any sensors on the body or buy expensive sleep sensing equipment. We named this mechanism Packets-to-Predictions(P2P) because we leverage the WiFi MAC layer traffic collected in the home and university environments to predict "sleep" and "awake" periods. We first manually established that extracting such patterns is feasible, and then, we trained various machine learning models to identify these patterns automatically. We trained six machine learning models-K nearest neighbors, logistic regression, random forest classifier, support vector classifier, gradient boosting classifier, and multilayer perceptron. K nearest neighbors gave the best performance with 87% train accuracy and 83% test accuracy.

Secure cross-layer routing protocol with authentication key management scheme for manets

MANET (Mobile ad-hoc networks) is typically a no-infrastructure multi-hop network where every node interacts with other network nodes either indirectly or directly via intermediate nodes. A lot of research is being undertaken to save the energy of mobile nodes at different levels. Power-relevant issues can have an effect on every layer of the stack, making the traditional layered approach ineffective. In this work, cross layered routing protocol based on PSO (Particle swarm optimization) with adapted contention window technique is proposed. To form consistent and energy efficient routing paths, PSO algorithm uses Traffic index, Average energy load, data success rate & trust value parameters that are computed from network layer. After establishing routing paths, network's contentions are measured MAC layers for communications and contention with measured contentions and average energy loads. The trust of nodes is computed using the following constraints: group trust-provided by neighbour nodes & quality trust-computed by node QoS. Dual authentications with EnDA (enhanced dual authentication) using key management strategies for enhanced data security and integrity. ECC (Elliptical curve cryptography) and Diffie-Hellman key exchanges with bilinear maps improve security of communications. The suggested protocol when measured in terms of energy usage and secure key agreements during network's transmissions, showed satisfactory performances.

SOHCL-RDT: A self-organized hybrid cross-layer design for reliable data transmission in wireless network

In this paper, we propose “SOHCL-RDT” which stands for a self-organized hybrid cross-layer design for reliable data transmission in wireless network. The communication paradigm is changing and new approach related to machine learning or other optimization algorithms are being introduce rapidly. The TCP/IP or OSI model is not at all equipped to accommodate such a vast changes in its established protocol stacks. Considering this, we have proposed the hybrid cross layer design where the communication or transmission will be handle using two set of protocol stack. One set for the established classical network, and another using cross layer approach. Our design leverages the strengths of both the physical and MAC layers to optimize packet transmission and minimize energy consumption. An optimization algorithm based on gradient descent is also developed to adjust transmission parameters in real-time. The objective is to invoke the classical model only when it needed; it means until unless gradient descent is able to make classification regarding the node scheduling and achieve the acknowledgment, the TCP/IP protocol stack will be in deactivation. Using this method, we have performed our experiments mainly on two parameters named as packet delivery ratio (PDR), end-to-end delay (E2ED); because these are important aspect of reliability. In addition to that, the energy consumption of network is also compared with the existing algorithms. The results show that the proposed hybrid cross-layer design outperforms the existing algorithms. The performance gain can be attributed to the cross-layer approach and the use of the optimization algorithm. Overall, the proposed hybrid cross-layer design is a promising solution for reliable data transmission in wireless sensor networks, with the potential to improve network performance and prolong network lifetime by reducing energy consumption.

Analysis and Performance Evaluation of the Static and Dynamic Channel Bonding for the IEEE 802.11ac WLAN


 According to the rising number of users and the application development that needs fast transfer rates. The main objective behind the development of IEEE 802.11ac was to deliver WLANs with exceptionally very high throughput rates. Significant improvements were incorporated into the PHY and MAC layers to achieve this, leading to enhanced data rates and overall network performance. These enhancements have enabled the standard 802.11ac to support channel bonding schemes. This paper looks at how channel bonding affects the performance of system, especially in terms of delay and amount of throughput. The research paper looks at four different scenarios with different numbers of channel BW 40,80 & 160MHz, and various spatial streams (SS) from 1 to 8. The network simulator (NS-3) version 3.37 is used to simulate these scenarios. The results of the simulation indicate that when Dynamic Channel Bonding (DCB) is applied, the highest throughput and least amount of delay values are acquired. Specifically, for MIMO (8×8) SS and with respect to the Static Channel Bonding (SCB), the best improvement of throughput and delay are obtained with DCB in the highest (48 node number) scenario. The throughput development values are (90.21%, 87.3%, and 42.91%) and the delay improvement values are (47.43%, 46.61%, and 30.03%) for channel BWs 40,80, &160 MHz, respectively.

A new predictive approach for the MAC layer misbehavior in IEEE 802.11 networks

Purpose Ad hoc mobile networks are commonplace in every aspect of our everyday life. They become essential in many industries and have uses in logistics, science and the military. However, because they operate mostly in open spaces, they are exposed to a variety of dangers. The purpose of this study is to introduce a novel method for detecting the MAC layer misbehavior. Design/methodology/approach The proposed novel approach is based on exponential smoothing for throughput prediction to address this MAC layer misbehavior. The real and expected throughput are processed using an exponential smoothing algorithm to identify this attack, and if these metrics exhibit a trending pattern, an alarm is then sent. Findings The effect of the IEEE 802.11 MAC layer misbehavior on throughput was examined using the NS-2 network simulator, as well as the approval of our novel strategy. The authors have found that a smoothing factor value that is near to 0 provides a very accurate throughput forecast that takes into consideration the recent history of the updated values of the real value. As for the smoothing factor values that are near to 1, they are used to identify MAC layer misbehavior. Originality/value According to the authors’ modest knowledge, this new scheme has not been proposed in the state of the art for the detection of greedy behavior in mobile ad hoc networks.

Dynamic Selfish Node Detection With Link Quality Consideration in Vehicular Networks

With the emergence of various applications in intelligent transportation systems (ITS), the cooperative communication among the nodes on roads is becoming more and more important in vehicular networks. However, selfish nodes, which are not willing to relay data packets for others, drastically decrease the communication performance of the network in various aspects including packet delivery ratio, end-to-end delay, communication bandwidth, etc. It is critical to detect the selfish nodes in the network for avoiding the decrement of network performance. Nevertheless, it is extremely challenging to correctly and fairly detect selfish nodes in vehicular networks where the network topology is highly dynamic and link quality between nodes is lossy. In order to address this issue, a novel detection scheme is proposed in this paper. The proposed scheme jointly considers the link quality, mobility, and vehicle behaviors at the network layer and MAC layer with fuzzy logic in a fully decentralized manner. Furthermore, an innovative perception module is deployed based on probabilistic calculations to refine the detection decisions of the scheme. The scheme is validated by simulation platforms which integrate Veins, SUMO, and INET Framework under IEEE 802.11p and AODV protocols. The computer simulations are conducted with both highway and urban traffic scenarios of Xi'an city in China. As the results shown, the proposed scheme demonstrates better detection capabilities than the conventional schemes in terms of <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">Precision</i> , <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">Recall</i> , and <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">F1-score</i> with an acceptable communication overhead.

Dynamic Parameter Allocation With Reinforcement Learning for LoRaWAN

LoRaWAN attracted lots of attention with its capacity for large device numbers, long-range and low power consumption. In order to simplify the transmission procedure, a pure Aloha protocol is implemented into its MAC layer. However, as the number of connected devices to the base station increases, the devices’ transmission parameters allocation becomes a vital issue related to network performance. This research contributes to the decentralized dynamic Spreading Factor (SF) allocation strategies during transmission by proposing STEPS, a Score Table based Evaluation and Parameters Surfing approach. STEPS is a reinforcement learning-based method that evaluates and changes the parameters based on probability and score tables. It provides a nondeterministic parameter selection method by updating the table while transmitting. Some variants of STEPS with different algorithms are proposed. Moreover, an estimation-based initialization is proposed to improve learning performance. Simulations and statistical tests are carried out with MULANE, a lightweight LoRaWAN Simulator developed in our previous work. The results show that the estimation has a high confidence level. Compared with the baseline methods, the proposed methods reduce energy consumption by 24-27% in different numbers of nodes. For bi-directional transmission, the proposed methods increase the 18% network throughput in a small number of nodes and 33% in a large number of nodes. Moreover, the proposed methods provide a framework of decentralized parameter allocation, which gives the extendability of this work.

Interference Cancellation Scheme Based on Network Coding in Blockchain-Enabled Internet of Things

In the face of an explosive increase in the number of IoT devices, the IoT model using blockchain technology, like the traditional IoT system, has a common problem, that is, the communication quality is seriously affected by various interferences, which directly limits the improvement of the service quality of the blockchain-enabled IoT system. Therefore, it is of great practical significance to study the interference problem in the existing Internet of Things system using blockchain technology and propose methods to reduce interference. This paper compares and analyzes the performance of two-slot and three-slot network coding enhanced systems, and designs a new MAC layer protocol for blockchain-enabled IoT systems based on network coding technology. On this basis, through enhanced information transmission at the MAC layer and network coding at the physical layer, the multi-layer collaborative communication method is used to reduce the interference between the IoT system devices enabled by the blockchain. The simulation results show that the use of network coding technology can effectively reduce the mutual interference between data sending nodes in the blockchain-enabled IoT system.

An Analysis of the Mixed IEEE 802.11ax Wireless Networks in the 5 GHz Band.

This paper presents an analysis of the IEEE 802.11ax networks' coexistence with legacy stations, namely IEEE 802.11ac, IEEE 802.11n, and IEEE 802.11a. The IEEE 802.11ax standard introduces several new features that can enhance network performance and capacity. The legacy devices that do not support these features will continue to coexist with newer devices, creating a mixed network environment. This usually leads to a deterioration in the overall performance of such networks; therefore, in the paper, we want to show how we can reduce the negative impact of legacy devices. In this study, we investigate the performance of mixed networks by applying various parameters to both the MAC and PHY layers. We focus on evaluating the impact of the BSS coloring mechanism introduced to the IEEE 802.11ax standard on network performance. We also examine the impact of A-MPDU and A-MSDU aggregations on network efficiency. Through simulations, we analyze the typical performance metrics such as throughput, mean packet delay, and packet loss of mixed networks with different topologies and configurations. Our findings indicate that implementing the BSS coloring mechanism in dense networks can increase throughput by up to 43%. We also show that the presence of legacy devices in the network disrupts the functioning of this mechanism. To address this, we recommend using an aggregation technique, which can improve throughput by up to 79%. The presented research revealed that it is possible to optimize the performance of mixed IEEE 802.11ax networks.

6LoWPAN MAC layer parameters optimization using evolutionary algorithm based ANN topology in wireless body area networks

Since the IPv6 Wireless Personal Area Network (6LoWPAN) can be utilized for information dissemination, this network gains significant attention in recent years. Proxy mobile IPv6 (PMIPv6) is standard for mobility control based on network at entire IP wireless applications. But, group-based body area networks cannot respond effectively. A new improved group flexibility system decrease the number of control messages contain router requests as well as advertising messages when compared to the group-based PMIPv6 protocol, in order to minimize delay and signaling costs. The IEEE 802.15.4 standard for low-power personal area networks (6LoWPAN) complies through IPv6-compliant MAC and physical layers. If the default parameters, excessive collisions, packet loss, and great latency occur arbitrarily in high traffic by default MAC parameters while using a great number of 6LoWPAN nodes. The implemented Whale optimization algorithm is based on artificial neural network optimization, genetic algorithm or particle swarm optimization to choose and authenticate MAC parameters. This manuscript proposes a novel intelligent method for choosing optimally configured MAC 6LoWPAN layer set parameters. Results of simulations based on the metrics such as Average delay time (ADT), Average signaling cost, Delivery ratio, Energy consumption, Latency, Network Life time (Nlt), Packet Overhead (PO), Packet loss. The performance of the proposed method provides 19.08%, 25.87%, 31.98%, 26.98%, 31.98%, 26.98% and 23.89% lower Latency, 12.67%, 25.98%, 31.98%, 26.98%, 27.98%, 31.97% and 27.85% lower Packet Overhead and 19.78%, 27.96%, 37.98%, 18.09%, 28.97%, 27.98% and 56.04% higher Delivery ratio compared with the existing methods such as 6LoWPAN-NUM-OHCA-FFA, 6LoWPAN-GTCCF-PSO, 6LoWPAN- DODAG-ACO, 6LoWPAN- MAC-GA-PSO, 6LoWPAN-NCG-DTC-NGIPSA and 6LoWPAN-TDMA-GTS-SHJA algorithms respectively.

DSRC Versus LTE-V2X: Empirical Performance Analysis of Direct Vehicular Communication Technologies

Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) communication systems have an eminence potential to improve road safety and optimize traffic flow by broadcasting Basic Safety Messages (BSMs). Dedicated Short-Range Communication (DSRC) and LTE Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X) are two candidate technologies to enable V2V communication. DSRC relies on the IEEE 802.11p standard for its PHY and MAC layer while LTE-V2X is based on 3GPP’s Release 14 and operates in a distributed manner in the absence of cellular infrastructure. There has been considerable debate over the relative advantages and disadvantages of DSRC and LTE-V2X, aiming to answer the fundamental question of which technology is most effective in real-world scenarios for various road safety and traffic efficiency applications. In this paper, we present a comprehensive survey of these two technologies (i.e., DSRC and LTE-V2X) and related works. More specifically, we study the PHY and MAC layer of both technologies in the survey study and compare the PHY layer performance using a variety of field tests. First, we provide a summary of each technology and highlight the limitations of each in supporting V2X applications. Then, we examine their performance based on different metrics.

Design of Bit Width Converter Based on PCIE4.0

Aiming at the data bit width conversion module used in PCIE4.0 physical coding layer, this paper designs a backwards compatibility-capable implementation method, which combines the version below backwards compatibility 4.0. According to the data bit width selection signal BusWidth of MAC layer in PCIE protocol, the current running speed of PCIE is selected. So as to select the form of bit width conversion. The designed PCIE internal strobe signal is 32 bits wide, and the correctness of its coding operation mode is verified by using the description language of Verilog hardware and the joint simulation form of Verdi and VCS.

A Priority-based Data Transmission for Energy Efficiency MAC Protocol with Wireless Body Area Networks

Wireless Body Area Networks (WBANs) are a collection of vital and electrical signals measured from various body parts to help analyze therapeutic approaches for patients using wireless data transmission. The significant data has to communicate with collision avoidance to obtain high throughput. In this paper, a hybrid MAC layer communication is implemented between CSMA/CA and TDMA. CSMA/CA communication has been introduced to manage the TDMA sequence of transmissions without a central node. The experimental results in this system implement real wireless devices, TelosB, with the IEEE 802.15.4 standard. We studied the convergence speed of transmission sequence allocation, which was measured in the CSMA/CA period. When the number of nodes is small, the convergence time is slower than a large number of nodes. However, the number of nodes does not affect the number of rounds entering the transmission period. This parameter has been evaluated for the network and energy efficiency in WBANs. Packet delivery ratio, packet numbers, and energy consumption are examined for the different priority-based nodes in the TDMA period. The energy consumption can reduce to 40% for no priority when compared with high priority in the case of a priority-based node.