MaaS Systems Research Articles

Integrating one-to-many peer-to-peer ridesharing and public transit for morning commute on a mobility-as-a-service platform

Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS) seamlessly integrates public transit with mobility-on-demand services to provide users with a one-stop tailored mobility service. Motivated by the practices of the SocialCar project, we study the integration of one-to-many peer-to-peer ridesharing and public transit in the morning commute setting. However, it becomes extremely difficult for the platform to optimise matching, routeing and scheduling for the users over a large network. For practical application, we develop a decision model for the integrated matching problem and propose an iterative distributed optimisation algorithm. The algorithm decomposes the original problem into parallel small subproblems within clusters and iteratively updates clustering as guided by theoretical results; furthermore, an incremental approach is adopted when updating clusters to reduce computational complexity. We conduct extensive computational experiments with real-world data, which demonstrate that our algorithm can quickly generate high-quality solutions for MaaS systems in practice while substantially reducing the users' vehicle miles travelled.

Socially Sustainable Mobility as a Service (MaaS): A practical MCDM framework to evaluate accessibility and inclusivity with application

Promoting socially sustainable mobility services for all social groups is one of the key elements for sustainable development according to the UN's sustainable development goals. Mobility as a Service (MaaS), a rapidly growing smart mobility concept, has the potential to achieve this goal. However, measuring societal impacts of MaaS considering vulnerable social groups' (elderly, disabled, low-income people) needs is still a question for scholars, practitioners, and policy makers. This paper presents a practical 3-stage framework to evaluate the accessibility and inclusion of MaaS systems based on a range of indicators, and a multi-criteria decision making (MCDM) method. A worldwide experts' view survey was conducted among transportation academics and practitioners with 105 valid responses to prioritise the main and sub-criteria in proving an accessible and inclusive MaaS system. The results of MCDM analysis show that accessible transport services, accessible MaaS platforms, and accessibility data collection have a share of 51 %, 29 %, and 20 %, respectively. The functionality of the proposed framework has been illustrated on a real-world multi-city MaaS implementation within the Solent area, in particular Portsmouth city located in Southeast England (UK). The policy recommendations proposed in this study shed light on guiding stakeholders and policymakers to select and implement an accessible and inclusive MaaS system.

IMPReSS: A comprehensive method to classify MaaS systems

Mobility as a Service (MaaS) has the potential to improve urban mobility by reducing car ownership and promoting multimodal transport through a single mobility app that provides trip planners, booking, ticketing, and payment for different modes and bundles. However, not all existing MaaS (or potential MaaS) systems provide a fully integrated system. Several authors have proposed different methodologies to assess MaaS integration. However, these approaches have some limitations regarding the scalability or characterization of the systems, making it hard to compare between them, as the current approaches are all incremental. In this work, we propose a new method called IMPReSS, a binary coding approach that assesses several dimensions of MaaS: Information, Multimodality, Payment, Reservation, Subscription, and Societal goals. It allows proper classification and comparison of different systems, using the societal goals as a cornerstone for its evaluation. Also, we propose a complementary scoring system based on the IMPReSS topology. This qualitative and quantitative methodology will allow practitioners and researchers to characterize, identify, and adequately assess transportation services and their potential to become a fully integrated MaaS system. Our results show that mature MaaS systems with public authorities involved, and some often excluded from MaaS discussion systems are ranked higher, while some wrongly called MaaS apps are ranked at the bottom. In summary, it assesses systems from a different and flexible perspective.

Embracing new disruptions: Business model innovation in the transition to Mobility as a Service (MaaS)

A decade ago, Mobility as a Service (MaaS) has emerged as a revolutionary concept destined to change the traditional transport paradigm. Indeed, MaaS envisions an integrated and on-demand transportation ecosystem where users have access to a variety of mobility options via a unified digital platform that centralizes information, ticketing, and payment systems for different service providers. Recognizing its disruptive potential, in this paper we examinate the effects of MaaS introduction in the market, with a particular focus on businesses within the industry. Specifically, we aim at investigating the dynamic nature of business model innovation within the MaaS business ecosystem, thus capturing the changes, adaptations, and innovations that organizations have undergone, providing valuable insights into the new value creation, capture and delivery mechanisms that have emerged. To achieve these goals, we have employed an inductive, multiple case study approach, focusing on a total of six renowned organizations representing two key actor categories within MaaS ecosystems: service providers and technology providers. Our findings reveal that, despite their heterogeneity, both service and technology providers have adopted similar strategies in their transition to MaaS. Utilizing the value creation, capture, and delivery framework, we developed distinct models for each of these categories. We have identified common firm-specific mechanisms which have been categorized into broader macro-level mechanisms of value creation, capture, and delivery, drawing from existing literature. The findings of this study contribute to the ongoing academic literature related to MaaS and to business model innovation. Furthermore, they offer valuable practical insights for managers and policymakers, providing a guidance for strategic decision-making aimed at fostering the development and sustainability of innovative MaaS systems.

TrustedMaaS: Transforming trust and transparency Mobility-as-a-Service with blockchain

Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS) is an advanced Intelligent Transport System (ITS) that integrates various modes of transportation to meet the demands of travellers. The system relies on frequent communication for data exchange between the MaaS provider and transport service providers. Ideally, such communication would utilize trust technologies between these entities. However, current MaaS systems lack transparency and reliability, and their centralized nature creates a single point of failure for the entire service. To address these issues, this paper proposes a blockchain-based MaaS, which includes an architecture and smart contract functionalities. The solutions are built on permissioned and permissionless Hyperledger Fabric and Ethereum blockchain platforms, respectively, for a realistic deployment of network architecture and proposed smart contracts. Additionally, the paper presents a framework derived from comparing these two blockchain platforms. Finally, the framework is evaluated, and open questions and challenges are analysed.

Mobility as a service and gender: A review with a view

The extent to which MaaS might contribute to gender equity in transport has been considered by some; however, the level of attention paid to the topic varies enormously, and there is significant variation in the data regarding how perceptions and use (or intended use) of MaaS systems might differ between men and women. This research reviews the MaaS literature published in academic journals and draws attention to where gender has been considered, what was found, and what this means for researchers, practitioners, and policymakers in their efforts to address gender inequity in transport. A document set of 420 peer-reviewed articles was analysed with respect to the perspectives taken (e.g., technology, user uptake and experience, business and governance) and the approaches or methods used (e.g., case studies, questionnaires, simulation). A series of questions adapted from the Sex and Gender Equity in Research (SAGER) guidelines were asked of each of the 171 articles that were identified as referencing gender in some way. The results and discussions of those works were considered together and framed in terms of the SWOT strategic analysis approach in order to highlight where and in what ways the fundamental nature of MaaS contributes to gender equitable mobility (strengths) or not (weaknesses), the potentially fruitful aspects on which MaaS might capitalise (opportunities), and the challenges and barriers to overcome, as well as the dangers to avoid, in the application of MaaS for gender equity (threats).

Incentive-compatible mechanisms for online resource allocation in Mobility-as-a-Service systems

In the context of Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS), the transportation sector has been evolving towards user-centric business models, which put the user experience and tailored mobility solutions at the center of the offer. The emerging concept of MaaS emphasizes that users value experience-relevant factors, e.g., service time, inconvenience cost, and travel delay, over segmented travel modes choices. This study proposes an auction-based mechanism and tractable optimization models for the demand-side management of MaaS systems wherein users’ trip requests are represented as mode-agnostic mobility resources. Users’ requests arrive dynamically in the MaaS system and users compete for mobility resources by bidding for mobility services based on their willingness to pay and experience-relevant preferences. We take the perspective of a MaaS platform regulator who aims to maximize social welfare by optimally allocating mobility resources to users in real-time. The MaaS regulator first decides whether to offer each user a MaaS bundle and identifies the optimal allocation of mobility resources for the selected users. Users have the possibility to accept or reject offered MaaS bundles by comparing the associated utility obtained from MaaS with a reserve utility obtained from other travel options. We introduce mixed-integer programming formulations for this online mobility resource allocation problem. We show that the proposed MaaS mechanism is incentive-compatible, individually rational, budget balanced, and computationally efficient. We propose a polynomial-time online algorithm and derive its competitive ratio relative to an offline algorithm. We also explore rolling horizon configurations with varying look-ahead policies to implement the proposed mechanism. Extensive numerical simulations conducted on large-scale instances generated from realistic mobility data highlight the benefits of the proposed mechanism.

Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS) as a solution platform for the city and the region: case study

Article on the use of information technology platforms for transportation systems integration (MaaS). The purpose is to analyze and evaluate the functionality of MaaS using the example of Basel as a city and region. The methods are systems analysis and a case study. The result is an analysis of the use of MaaS systems at four different levels as interstate, national, regional and city cooperation.

Integrating automated minibuses into mobility systems – Socio-technical transitions analysis and multi-level perspectives

Automated driving, along with other mobility innovations, is expected to entail socio-technical changes in mobility systems. Automated vehicles and, more specifically, automated minibuses integrated into mobility systems are analysed in this study as a breakthrough technology through the perspective of different stakeholder groups and citizens. Our research approach builds upon conceptual mapping and semi-structured interviews with main stakeholder groups (n = 30) and a large-scale survey with citizens of four European cities (n = 1816). This paper brings forward insights into the interaction between technology and society as a dialectical process through the prism of socio-technical transitions and multi-level perspectives. The study addresses the main drivers and barriers to steering the deployment of automated minibuses to meet the mobility needs of citizens and the aims of cities towards sustainable mobility. Further, it points out five main mechanisms to pave the way to a mobility transition with automated minibuses integrated into mobility systems. Our findings support the prospect that automated minibuses integrated into public transport and MaaS systems and coupled with other niche innovations and policy instruments can be part of the solution to pave the way towards a socio-technical transition to a new mobility paradigm.

Research on Consumer Identity in Using Sustainable Mobility as a Service System in a Commuting Scenario

Social and economic development leads to the continuous urbanization process, accompanied by the increasingly prominent traffic congestion problem. Traffic congestion also brings problems such as serious environmental pollution and intensified social conflicts. Therefore, how to alleviate traffic congestion has become a concern of the government and related researchers. As the main cause of urban traffic, the efficiency of urban commuting is considered as the best embodiment of urban functionality. The mobile as a service (Maas) system may be a better solution. In order to make the mobile as a service system more popular, it is necessary to understand the internal motivations driving people’s corresponding behaviors. Therefore, this study aimed to explore the internal logic of consumer identity, attitude and related intentions through a structural equation model and chi-square analyses. The final behavioral intention of commuting consumers towards MaaS was explored by integrating relevant theoretical models and comparing different levels of identification and the views of different consumers towards MaaS. A result was provided that can be used by relevant government agencies or practitioners in order to gain a deeper understanding of the internal perceptions of consumers and promote the optimization and innovation of MaaS systems. In addition, the results of this study also identified the potential necessary factors for the adoption of MaaS by commuting consumers, which may influence the improvement or development of relevant policies. The results showed that the model used in this study was applicable to the consumption cognition of the MaaS system in the commuting scenario, which shows that the model has a certain effect in explaining consumers’ sustainable consumption attitudes, identities and intentions. The internalization of sustainable identity is the most important part for consumers, which indicates that consumers attach great importance to self-value affirmation and mutual affirmation of sustainable concepts. However, in the consumer group, there were still some consumers who had not transformed their sustainable attitudes and recognitions into actual behavior. Converting such consumers is, therefore, crucial and an important step towards sustainable development.

Mobility as a Service Inclusion Index (MaaSINI): Evaluation of inclusivity in MaaS systems and policy recommendations

According to UN statistics, the population of people in vulnerable social groups, namely elderly people, people with disabilities, and low-income populations, has increased over the recent decades. It is projected that this trend will continue in the future. Thus, their mobility and access to transport services are important areas to study. Mobility as a Service (MaaS) is a digital platform (smartphone application) that aims to encourage more sustainable travel. MaaS is promoted as being accessible to all user groups. However, there are limited studies linking MaaS with vulnerable social groups and their particular needs. This paper comprehensively reviews studies on the emergence of such platforms since 2014 until today to identify the research gaps with respect to vulnerable social groups. A framework and MaaS Inclusion Index (MaaSINI) are then proposed to evaluate the inclusion in MaaS services, focusing on vulnerable social groups’ needs at a service level instead of a city/area level. The framework and policy recommendations proposed in this study will make a significant contribution in guiding stakeholders and policymakers in implementing accessible-for-all-users MaaS services targeting sustainable and inclusive transport.

Impact of the Use of Electric Scooters from Shared Mobility Systems on the Users

In recent years, mobility as a service (MaaS) (i.e., a system combining public transport, shared rides, short-term vehicle rentals, and taxis sourced via mobile applications) has become a solution that is increasingly available in smart cities. Along with the development of transport options, the range of vehicles offered as part of this type of service has expanded widely, from buses, taxis, bicycles, and cars to the innovation of electric scooters. The universality of MaaS services has led to a change in communication behavior and, at the same time, to a rapid increase in the number of people using the proposed solutions. Due to this increase, several researchers devoted their dissertations to issues of the management or optimization of websites; however, they ignored the many technical and health aspects. Recognizing a scientific niche area, the research conducted has been devoted to assessing the impact of the vibrations generated by electric scooters upon the user. Research on the vehicles used in MaaS systems has been conducted to learn and analyze the selected design solutions and their impact on the user who utilizes them. The scope of the research included vibroacoustic research and the mathematical modeling of the studied phenomena.

Online Route Choice Modeling for Mobility-as-a-Service Networks With Non-Separable, Congestible Link Capacity Effects

With the prevalence of MaaS systems, route choice models need to consider characteristics unique to them. MaaS systems tend to involve service systems with fleets of vehicles; as a result, the available service capacity depends on the choices of other travelers in different parts of the system. We model this with a new concept of “congestible capacity”; that is, link capacities are a function of flow instead of link costs. This dependency is also non-separable; the capacity in one link can depend on flows from multiple links. An offline-online estimation method is introduced to capture the structural effects that flows have on capacities and the resulting impacts on route choice utilities. The method is first applied to obtain unique congestible capacity shadow prices in a multimodal network to verify the capability to capture congestion effects on capacities. The capacities are shown to vary and impact the utility of a route. The method is validated using real system data from Citi Bike in New York City. The results show that the model can fit to the data quite well and performs better than a baseline modeling approach that ignores congestible capacity effects. By relating the route choice to congestible capacities using a random utility model, modelers can monitor and quantify the impacts to traveler consumer surplus in real time. Applications of the model and online method include monitoring capacity effects on consumer surplus, using the model to direct incentives programs for rebalancing and other revenue management strategies, and to guide resource allocation to mitigate consumer surplus impacts due to disruptions from incidents.

Multidimensional Indicator of MaaS systems Performance

The concept of MaaS has been described as a new way of managing urban and regional Mobility and facilitating the reduction of dependence on the individual vehicle. MaaS systems have been characterized through a single indicator so far, just providing information about the services available to the users or the level of technology used. However, to facilitate the comparison between various platforms by the potential users and facilitate the discussion between stakeholders, it is essential to provide a broader set of measures to evaluate each platform. In this work, we propose a multidimensional system based on three dimensions (coverage, functionality, and sustainability) based on pairs of indicators (geographical coverage and multimodality level; services and technology; contribution to social cohesion and the environment). The analysis of a dozen of mobility services in several European countries confirmed the notion that the MaaS is still in the preliminary development phase, and there is still a considerable margin of progress given the effective penetration in the market of large-scale systems, with advanced integration levels and effective demonstration of societal impacts.

Open Innovation in the Shared Mobility Market

The market for shared mobility services is growing very quickly. New types of vehicles have been introduced, and the offer of available services and functionalities has expanded, the purpose of which is to improve the quality of service. Despite all the improvements, it is still not possible to speak of achieving full availability of systems that meet the needs of users. This is due to the reluctant involvement of operators of shared mobility systems in joining Mobility as a Service platforms based on the idea of open innovation. The aim of the article is to analyze the factors influencing the limitations in the development of open innovations in the form of Mobility as a Service (MaaS) services. The authors focus on identifying the challenges and concerns faced by shared mobility service providers. The article supports the development of the concept of open innovation in shared mobility services. It also contains practical recommendations for the development of MaaS systems. The results of the developed research can be used by operators of shared mobility services, transport authorities, or IT service providers providing MaaS services to strengthen cooperation and integration using the language of mutual benefit.

Review of Whole System Simulation Methodologies for Assessing Mobility as a Service (MaaS) as an Enabler for Sustainable Urban Mobility

Mobility as a Service (MaaS) is an emerging concept that is being advanced as an effective approach to improve the sustainability of mobility, especially in densely populated urban areas. MaaS can be defined as the integration of various transport modes into a single service, accessible on demand, via a seamless digital planning and payment application. Recent studies have shown the potential reduction in the size of automobile fleets, with corresponding predicted improvements in congestion and environmental impact, that might be realized by the advent of automated vehicles as part of future MaaS systems. However, the limiting assumptions made by these studies point to the difficult challenge of predicting how the complex interactions of user demographics and mode choice, vehicle automation, and governance models will impact sustainable mobility. The work documented in this paper focused on identifying available methodologies for assessing the sustainability impact of potential MaaS implementations from a whole system (STEEP—social, technical, economic, environmental, and political) perspective. In this research, a review was conducted of current simulation tools and models, relative to their ability to support transportation planners, to assess the MaaS concept, holistically, at a city level. The results presented include: a summary of the literature review, a weighted ranking of relevant transportation simulation tools per the assessment criteria, and identification of key gaps in the current state of the art. The gaps include capturing the interaction of demographic changes, mode choice, induced demand, and land use in a single framework that can rapidly explore the impact of alternative MaaS scenarios, on sustainable mobility, for a given city region. These gaps will guide future assessment methodologies for urban mobility systems, and ultimately assist informed decision-making.

A study on users' willingness to accept mobility as a service based on UTAUT model

ABSTRACT MaaS has received highly anticipated from the field of transportation theory and practice in recent years. Many Chinese cities have also proposed plans to build MaaS systems and have begun to implement them. As a new type of travel service paradigm, user recognition, acceptance, and continued use are prerequisites for the survival and development of MaaS. Therefore, accurately identifying the key variables that affect user acceptance and grasping the user's requirements are important support to ensure the MaaS has been applying successfully. Based on the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use Technology model (UTAUT), this study establishes an analysis framework of MaaS acceptance and intention. A small town with a very common use of cars in the suburbs of Shanghai was selected as the survey object, and the potential uses and requirements of MaaS for 314 households and 600 residents were collected. This study proposes five important strategies for the promotion and application of MaaS: 1. Strengthen publicity and promote the MaaS concept to be more easily understood and accepted. 2. Improve convenience in the manual and avoid cumbersome operations; 3. Grasp the users’ curiosity and the early adopters, and cultivate the approved user base. 4. Focus on improving user experience, maintaining MaaS reputation, rewarding users for sharing register invitations. 5. Strengthening the protection of user information and service stability of MaaS guarantee to eliminate user concerns. At the same time, different services can be launched for different groups. Such as providing customized MaaS travel packages for middle-aged, elderly people and minors; making more detailed tutorials for people without membership experience, inviting free experiences, etc.

Mobility-as-a Service jako postęp w integracji transportu

Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS) is an innovative concept that makes a significant contribution to transport integration. This concept has developed following the emergence of new types of transport services and technological advances, in particular ICT and mobile technology. MaaS has the potential to improve the use of assets and contributes to a reduction in the number of passenger cars in congested cities. The aim of the article is to synthesise the current state of knowledge on the Mobility-as-a-Service concept, to assess the degree of the implementation of MaaS systems in Europe, to discuss the results of research on the benefits of using these solutions, as well as to show the role of MaaS in transport integration. The research methodology includes a literature review and a deductive research method. The research has shown that any consensus has been reached on the scope of the MaaS system, although the suggestion is that they should include solutions that have at least an integrated module for booking services and payments, in addition to the possibility of planning a journey by different transport means. Currently there are neither sufficient data on the costs and benefits of MaaS systems, nor comprehensive analyses how they affect travel patterns and user behaviour. However, the first fragmented studies of MaaS pilot implementations confirm the existence of benefits for different stakeholder groups. The analysis of levels and the scope of the integration in MaaS systems confirmed that they contribute to the deepening of the integration of transport services. The results of the research presented in this article can be a reason for in-depth research into the essence and effects of Mobility-as-a-Service applications.

Organizing integrated services in mobility-as-a-service systems: Principles of alliance formation applied to a MaaS-pilot in the Netherlands

Mobility as a Service (MaaS) involves integration of various forms of public and private transport services into a single mobility service, accessible on demand. For MaaS to become successful, different suppliers of transport services have to cooperate in alliances in order to bring new benefits in the short and long term. Past experience demonstrates that this is a challenge, and existing transport providers are struggling with this cooperation. Various factors, including divergent interests of stakeholders, may limit the formation of such alliances. In this paper, we resort to the theories of alliance formation to extend our understanding of the formation of alliances within MaaS. Based on the economic, sociological and business literature we propose a conceptual model and formulate ten fundamental propositions for alliance formation to offer MaaS systems. The model takes the perspective of business firms for whom the institutional environment is an exogenous influence. We then apply this conceptual alliance-formation-model for a MaaS-pilot in Nijmegen, The Netherlands. Stakeholders within this pilot were interviewed on their conditions for forming an alliance. It appears that shared goals, limited risks for the partners involved, trust, and stimulating public actions are crucial for a successful alliance. For the pilot, however, learning appears to be the main motive for the firms to get involved. For future transition from the exploration to the exploitation phase of MaaS alliance, these results should be taken into account. The framework and the propositions developed in this paper could be adopted as the necessary preconditions for designing a proper governance structure for providing MaaS services.

MaaS for the suburban market: Incorporating carpooling in the mix

Mobility as a Service (MaaS) is often cited as providing an alternative solution to car ownership and car dominated lifestyles. However, MaaS as it currently exists appears to cater mainly for a specific segment of society – those who live close enough to walk to good quality public transport for daily journeys and close enough to access car share/car rental for other trips which public transport cannot serve. By default, this is limited to large, dense urban areas. This paper considers the evolution of intermodal journey planning that incorporates carpooling with public transport in the transition towards MaaS for suburban areas. It introduces a new journey planning App (known as RideMyRoute) that allows users to discover and make connected journeys involving carpooling and public transport, presenting key aspects of its design, development and testing.Results from a trial of the RideMyRoute App in four European test sites (Canton Ticino, Brussels, Zagreb and Ljubljana) revealed that the App was able to suggest trip planning solutions which included carpool options for one in five journey planning solutions and that the majority (85%) of these were solutions that involved connection from carpool to public transport. This is a significant advance on what is currently available through existing carpool provider systems or journey planning apps/services and could potentially increase the attractiveness of MaaS options in suburban markets. However, quality of data feeding the App from external sources remained an issue, as it is with all MaaS systems, and recommendations for future practice are presented. In conclusion, the new intermodal trip planning algorithm and data structure supporting it provide a fundamental stepping stone towards incorporating carpool services within MaaS-type offerings in the future.