M3 Of Water Research Articles

Production performance, fillet quality and cost effectiveness of red Tilapia (Oreochromis sp.) culture in different biofloc systems

The accumulation of biofloc in a rearing media that may bring about some adverse effects on the cultured fish, can be addressed by using a settlement tank. This study aimed to compare the production performance and flesh quality of red tilapia Oreochromis sp. in biofloc systems with and without a settlement tank. This study comprised of two treatments, i.e. biofloc system with settlement tank (Bioras) and biofloc system without settlement tank (Biofloc), each maintined in triplicates. Fish was reared in outdoor tarpaulin tanks with a diameter of 3 m and a height of 1.2 m, which were filled with about 5 m3 of water. Tilapia with an initial average weight of 100 g was cultured at an initial density of 5 kg m−3 for 112 days with a partial harvest conducted on day 42. The fish was fed with a commercial diet containing 30.5% crude protein to apparent satiation twice a day. The results showed that the production performance of red tilapia in Bioras (75 kg) was higher than that of the conventional biofloc system (70 kg). Mild deformities and limited parasite infestation were observed in the gills of the fish housed in the Bioras system. The fish quality was similar between the treatments, except for the hardness (8.4 kgf), gumminess (3.4 kgf), and chewiness (1.8 kgf), which was higher in the fish housed in the conventional biofloc system. The increase in fish growth in Bioras system could not compensate the increase in cost for the investment and operation of the settling tank, which was about 17% higher in the Bioras system. In conclusion, the present study confirmed that the addition of a settlement tank can be beneficial in controlling biofloc biomass and could improve the growth performance, but not yet profitable for red tilapia commercial production.

Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of Water Disinfection Processes Applicable in Low-Income Settings.

Access to safe, sufficient water for health and sanitation is a human right, and the reliable disinfection of water plays a critical role in addressing this need. The environmental impact and sustainability of water disinfection methods will also play a role in overall public health. This study presents an investigation of the environmental life cycle impacts of four ultraviolet disinfection systems utilizing ambient solar radiation directly and indirectly for water disinfection in comparison to chlorination and water delivery for application in low-income settings. Product inspection and existing literature were used to define a life cycle functional unit of 1 m3 of water for each system, which allowed quantification of material use, infrastructure requirements, and life cycle of the original components of each system and those needed to keep them operational for the studied lifespans (1, 5, 10, and 20 years) and scales (30, 100, 500, and 1000 L per day). For all studied cases, chlorine had the lowest impact in all impact categories, but end-user acceptance of chlorine in some settings is low, driving interest in low-impact alternatives. Disinfection based on low-pressure mercury lamps had the next lowest normalized impact in most categories and may represent a viable alternative, particularly for long-term (10+ years), high production (500+ liters per day) scenarios.

A CRITICAL ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS OF STRATEGIC MATERIALS TOWARDS ENERGY TRANSITION

Global consumption of materials is rising rapidly leading to an increase in environmental impacts associated with the supply chain. Similar issues also affect a set of materials strategic for the transition towards a sustainable energy production and distribution system: i.e. materials employed in renewable energy (wind turbines and photovoltaic panels), energy storage, electrolysers, electricity distribution networks and electric vehicle charging infrastructure. The analysis identifies, maps and defines a priority hierarchy for the environmental risks generated along the life-cycle of strategic raw materials. Standard construction material such as iron, steel and concrete showed the lowest environmental risks whereas platinum and iridium presented by far the highest impacts (respectively 24.098,04 and 14.732,51 kg CO2 eq, 353.893,39 and 215.934,28 MJ, and 140,24 and 83,20 m3 of water for 1 kg of raw material). Recycled materials have shown to enable the lowering of the environmental risk associated with some raw material production processes (i.e. copper, lead, aluminium, nickel, manganese), whereas specific materials (i.e. platinum, iridium, indium, dysprosium) and related applications will need to be monitored to guarantee a sustainable transition towards renewable energies.

Water energy food nexus model: an integrated aqua-agriculture system to produce tilapia and sweet basil using desalinated water

Under the framework of Water-Energy-Food Nexus, this study investigates the integration of solar-powered desalination with aquaculture and agriculture production systems to grow crops. Brackish water desalination is performed using reverse osmosis (RO), the permeate is directed to an aquaculture unit, and the fish effluent is used as irrigation water for crops. The experiment followed a split-plot design with three main variants: a full irrigation schedule for the basil plants with fish effluents as fertilizers, irrigation as fertigation with chemical fertilizers, and a mixed treatment of effluents and chemical fertilizers at 50% application each. Each treatment was further sprayed with or without foliar nutrient application. RO results gave a permeate recovery of 22%, and a salt rejection of 98.7%. In the aquaculture unit, tilapia harvest weight was 0.458 kg with a survival rate of 97.7% and harvest yield of 25 kg/ m3 of water. Effluent treatment exhibited the highest branching and plant height irrespective of the cut number, reaching 17.7 branches and 62-cm height. The effluent treatment under foliar application recorded the highest fresh and dry weights of basil with 14.7 ton/ha and 4.7 ton/ha, respectively. Effluent irrigation plus foliar application recorded basil yield of 5 kg/m3 effluent water. The dominant essential oil elements were linalool (55.5–61.6%), tau.-cadinol (5.3–8.3%), eucalyptol (5.4–7.7%), eugenol (2–6.8%), and (Z,E)-.alpha.-farnesene (3–5.2%). The study is among the very few integrated systems and, in particular, the current study is the first-time investigation of an integrated desalination, aquaculture, and agriculture production using renewable energy. Therefore, results suggest that integrating desalination, aquaculture, and agriculture could be a potential solution for the global water, energy, and food challenges.

Annual pulses of copper-enriched sediment in a North American river downstream of a large lake following the catastrophic failure of a mine tailings storage facility

Failures of mine tailings storage facilities (TSF) can have profound and long-lasting effects on the downstream receiving environment. Virtually all spills to date have been into river systems without large lakes that may buffer downstream impacts. In August 2014, the failure of the Mount Polley copper (Cu)-gold mine TSF in British Columbia, Canada, released ~25 × 106 m3 of water and solids; globally, this is the second largest TSF spill in history. Over 18 × 106 m3 was delivered to Quesnel Lake, which is ~9 km from the TSF and is the third deepest lake in North America, and a crucial habitat for Pacific salmon and trout populations. We determined the sediment-associated Cu concentrations and fluxes in Quesnel River, downstream of the lake, from August 2014 to February 2021 based on the analysis of >400 samples of sediment, mainly collected using a continuous-flow centrifuge. During each winter since the spill, Cu concentrations in the fluvial sediment in the upper reaches of the river (~35 km from the TSF) were elevated relative to regional background concentrations and samples collected before the spill. Maximum Cu concentrations were ~410 mg kg−1 which exceeds Canadian sediment quality guidelines for the protection of aquatic organisms (197 mg kg−1). Monitoring of Quesnel Lake since the spill shows that these annual pulses in the winter are due to resuspension of unconsolidated tailings and sediments at the bottom of Quesnel Lake, during autumnal lake turnover, which become mixed throughout the water column and subsequently flow into Quesnel River. Results show that while large lakes may buffer downstream aquatic systems from contaminated sediment, they may prolong the environmental impact. These findings are crucial in understanding how lake processes may modify the effects of TSF spills on downstream aquatic systems.

In-house resource efficiency improvements supplementing the end of pipe treatments in textile SMEs under a circular economy fashion

The choice of cleaner production practices within the supply chain can improve the textile industry’s environmental, financial, and operational advantages. The objective of this study is to evaluate smart environmental management practices (SEMPs) for minimizing the pollution load (energy waste, water consumption, wastewater generation, and chemical waste) within the supply chain in five textile production units of Lahore, Faisalabad (Punjab), and Karachi (Sindh) in Pakistan and to assist and get comprehensive knowledge on resource saving through cleaner production techniques. A multi-criteria decision-making method was used to identify the possibilities and use for cleaner production and SEMPs. A total of 36 SEMPs have been recorded with three benchmarking levels based on investment and business priority: i) low/no-cost high return, ii) high-cost high return, and iii) medium-cost medium return. After an initial assessment, SEMPs were implemented and post-assessments were conducted after gap of months. It was found that about 1.3 million m3 of water was saved which constituted up 21% of the total water consumption. Moreover, 34,600 tons of chemicals and 1,441,500 kWh energy were also saved. This resource saving also helped industries save 0.792 million USD. Using the SEMPs proposed in this article, the annual GHG emission was significantly reduced for industries where the potential varied from 200 to 8,500 tons of CO2 for different industries.

Highly-stable, bifunctional, binder-free & stand-alone photoelectrode (FexNi1-xO@a-CC) for natural waters splitting into hydrogen

Photoelectrochemical (PEC) water splitting is a promising approach to boost green hydrogen production. Herein, we prepared novel binder-free photoelectrode by direct growth of iron doped nickel oxide catalyst over activated carbon cloth (FexNi1-xO@a-CC) having band gap energy of 2.2 eV for overall water splitting. FexNi1-xO@a-CC photoelectrode had shown remarkable lower potential of only 1.36 V for oxygen evolution reaction (OER) to reach 10 mA cm−2 current density using very low photonic intensity of 8.36 × 10−4 E/L.s. For the first time, we also reported electrical efficiency required for PEC water splitting for 1 m3 of water that is equal to 0.09 kWh/m3. FexNi1-xO@a-CC photoelectrode also exhibits low potentials of 1.44 V (OER) and −0.210 V (HER) at 10 mA cm−2 to split sea water. Our results confirmed that designing FexNi1-xO@a-CC photoelectrode would be an innovative step to widen green energy conversion applications using natural waters (both sea and fresh water).

Thermal Energy Consumption Assessment in a Fluid Milk Plant

The main energy conservation opportunities in a dairy plant are in refrigeration, and steam generation. This paper aims to identify potential energy and water savings and opportunities to improve the thermal efficiency of a fluid milk processing plant, using energy analysis and Heat Integration methods. Methodologies for energy analysis and Pinch Analysis with the use of HENSAD and Aspen Energy Analyzer are applied. The main specific energy consumptions are defined as indicators of the progress of improved energy efficiency. The determination of energy performance indicators and energy targets of the heat exchanger network, as well as its design, allowed identifying opportunities for improvement to reduce fuel and water consumption through heat recovery in the milk pasteurization process. Current hot and cold utilities duties are satisfied, for a minimum allowable temperature difference of 20 °C. Total annual savings of 60 t of fuel oil and 15,800 m3 of water allow assessing the feasibility of an investment project for improved heat recovery.

Source water vulnerability to elevated total dissolved solids within a mixed-use Appalachian River basin

The upper Monongahela River basin in West Virginia represents a watershed wherein historic land use activities, including coal mining, conventional oil and gas development, and residential and urban development have contributed to elevated total dissolved solids (TDS) concentrations within surface and source waters with widespread exceedance of the 500 mg/L secondary drinking water standard for TDS. Our research was designed to characterize spatial variability in and sources of elevated and assess vulnerability of surface and source waters to additional TDS sources and loading. We compiled 3439 unique water quality sampling records throughout the study area over a ten-year period and applied boosted regression tree (BRT) analysis to model log[x]-transformed TDS as a function of landscape attributes across the 885 sampled NHD catchments. We predicted (i.e., elevated TDS and reduced dilution capacity) and observed (i.e., increased variability in TDS and temporary exceedances of 500 mg/L) elevated vulnerability of source waters, with vulnerability being largely driven by a few dominant contributors of TDS throughout the stream network. Notably, seven 12-digit hydrologic unit code (HUC) inflows to the Monongahela River and its vulnerable tributaries were predicted to require a combined 6,664,879 m3 of water (i.e., chemical footprint) to dilute TDS concentrations below 500 mg/L from July through September. Our results provide insights into how the mixed land uses containing extractive industries can impact water quality and demonstrates the importance of both spatial and temporal processes in controlling vulnerability of source waters to water pollution.

Case Study: Evaluation and Reuse of Rainwater in a Prison in Santa Catarina State, Brazil

The capture and reuse of rainwater is a viable alternative in regions where water is scarce or in places where water consumption is high. However, the economic viability of the implementation of an appropriate system is reduced by the need to install pumps, filter pipes and filters. This case study was focused on evaluating the potential for the harvesting and reuse of rainwater in a prison in Santa Catarina State, Brazil. The experiment was carried out at Tubarão prison, where three sampling points were strategically selected for the collection of rainwater. The total area of the prison is 4793.73 m² and in this research only the roof areas of the buildings used to keep inmates in closed and semi-open regimes were used. In total, 3483.53 m² were considered, which guarantees an annual capture of 4314 m3 of water and corresponds to 17% of the water consumed in the prison, providing potential savings of US$ 5408 per year. After collection, the water was filtered through an activated carbon filter to be applied as reuse water. The results demonstrate significant reductions for all parameters analyzed. In general, the average efficiency was above 70%. The best results were obtained for the removal of suspended solids (94%), dissolved solids (94%), total solids (83) and phosphorus (81%). In addition, removal values for color, chlorides and nitrate were around 70%, verifying that the filtration system with activated carbon is efficient for harvested rainwater.

Ferrate-pretreated directional solvent extraction for hydraulic fracturing produced water: Technical and economic feasibility studies

Produced water (PW) generated from hydraulic fracturing operations contains varying amounts of crude oil, sand and dissolved ions, and is typically characterized as hyper-brine. It is often untreatable by existing desalination technologies. This study presents using the directional solvent extraction (DSE) technique to desalinate multiphasic, synthetic produced waters (SPW) using diisopropylamine (DIPA) as the extraction solvent and a ferrate pretreatment method. DSE with ferrate pretreatment achieved an average solvent efficiency of 0.25, 0.13 and 0.03 mL water/g solvent at 1 M, 2 M and 4 M salinity, respectively. The water extraction, turbidity reduction and salinity reduction efficiency were better for DSE with ferrate-pretreatment than compared to DSE alone. DSE's salt rejection rates in the product water were consistently over 95 %, while turbidity reduction was dependent on ferrate dosage used for pretreatment. This process costs an estimated $1.23 per m3 of water extracted from a 4 M brine for a single-pass operation with 95 % heat recoveries.

Water scarcity footprint of cocoa irrigation in Bahia

This study simulated the water scarcity footprint (WSF) of cocoa irrigation in municipalities considered suitable for cocoa growing in the state of Bahia, according to agro climatic zoning. Irrigation demand was calculated using the model proposed by FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). Subsequently, impact on water scarcity was calculated using the product of crop irrigation demand and water scarcity characterization factors of the regionalized AWARE method for Brazil. The WSF in Bahia ranged between 0.28 and 646.5 m³ of water per kilo of cocoa produced. From the defined scale, of the 417 municipalities in Bahia suitable for growing cocoa, 59% have a 'low' footprint, 18% 'medium', 10% 'high', and 12% have a 'very high' footprint. Based on these results, it is suggested that areas with lower WSF are a priority in the expansion of cocoa to avoid a possible compromise of other essential demands of the municipalities. In addition, irrigation should avoid waste, especially in regions with high levels of water scarcity. The results show that the inclusion of the WSF in agroclimatic zoning can contribute to the process of identifying potential and critical regions for new crops and the expansion of others.
 Keywords: agriculture, agroclimatic zoning, AWARE, environmental indicator.

Strategies for agricultural production management based on land, water and carbon footprints on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau

Agricultural production consumes land and water resources, and contributes to greenhouse gas emissions. Optimizing agricultural management to reduce environmental impacts is essential for regional ecological security. An evaluation framework was applied to assess the greenhouse gas emissions, water utilization, and land use of agricultural production in a typical agricultural region of the Huangshui River Basin on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, using footprint analysis. The results showed that agricultural production released 1.73 × 109 kg carbon equivalent (CO2-eq), and used 8.39 × 108 m3 of water and 2.96 × 105 ha of land. For the carbon footprint, agricultural material inputs (such as electricity, machinery, diesel, and nitrogen fertilizer) were the largest emission sources. For the water footprint, the blue water footprint was larger than the green water footprint. In addition, suitable management options were explored by establishing six scenarios according to the key factors influencing greenhouse gas emissions and water consumption. For technical strategy management options, using cleaner electricity in irrigation can reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 25.53%. Comprehensive strategies, including fertilizer application optimization and technical strategy management, proved to be more effective and reduced greenhouse gas emissions by 32.41%. The results of this study help to determine optimal agricultural management options for achieving both food security and environmental sustainability in agricultural areas on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau.

Changes in Fungal and Oomycete Community Composition Following Irrigation Reductions Aimed at Increasing Water Use Efficiency in a Containerized Nursery Crop

Ornamental production in the United States spans an estimated 267,000 ha and uses approximately 169,000 m3 of water yearly. Ornamental growers, particularly those with air-closed systems, are interested in implementing reduced irrigation technologies such as sensor-controlled irrigation systems to improve water use efficiency in response to water scarcity. To evaluate phytobiome impacts, we utilized an Illumina metabarcoding approach to characterize changes in fungal and oomycete rhizosphere communities of commercially grown poinsettia, complementing previous studies of single-pathogen impacts. Minor reductions (from 54 to 50% volumetric water content [VWC]) did not have large effects on rhizosphere fungal community structure but shifts in plant health status (symptomatic to asymptomatic) correlated with shifts in fungal diversity and evenness, with an increased abundance of several taxa, including Plectosphaerella cucumerina and Fusarium spp., in symptomatic plants. Further reductions in irrigation (45, 35, and 25% VWC) did not affect overall fungal community composition but the lowest VWC increased the abundance of potential root rot pathogens such as Phoma multirostrata and Plectosphaerella cucumerina. Reduced irrigation volumes decreased oomycete diversity and abundance of several known pathogens in the Phytophthora genus. Addition of a bacterial product (Companion) with putative pathogen-suppressive and drought-tolerance enhancing effects had no influence on fungal community composition or abundance but did increase abundance of some oomycete species at 45% VWC. This study shows that adoption of reduced irrigation may have greater effects on fungal versus oomycete taxa in the system, with consistent patterns of fungal enhancement, including putative fungal pathogens and beneficial organisms, and oomycete suppression.

Allocation and Utilization of Coal Mine Water for Ecological Protection of Lakes in Semi-Arid Area of China

In the background of water ecological protection, how to utilize the superfluous coal mine water efficiently has become an urgent problem, especially in northwest China, where the fragile ecological environment needs to be protected but lacks water. To solve this problem, this study proposes a new procedure for the allocation and utilization of mine water aimed at the ecological protection of lakes in an arid and semi-arid area. Based on the water balance method, the ecological water supplement of regional lakes is first estimated according to their different protection goals. Next, a trend analysis of water demand and supply is carried out, and the mine water inflow and available quantity are calculated. Meanwhile, the water resource allocation plan is evaluated systematically. In this study, the procedure is applied to the mine water and lakes in Wushen Banner, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of China. The results show that: (1) the lakes can be divided into three classifications according to their ecological protection goals, (2) the available amount of mine water will reach 57.17–81.97 million m3 in 2030, and there are about 46.7 million m3 of water that can be adjusted to reach the optimal utilization in 2020, and (3) the mine water after advanced treatment could meet the requirement of lakes. Finally, it outputs the water supplement path and the water quantity, as well as the water transmission pipelines to each lake, which makes up a new water resources allocation plan and a utilization mode of regional mine water. This utilization mode can provide solutions and ideas for improving the ecological environment of regional lakes and promote the construction of regional ecological safety barriers. Moreover, it can be very helpful for optimizing the allocation of regional water resources, and for improving the reasonable utilization of coal mine water.

Adsorption onto granular activated carbons of a mixture of pesticides and their metabolites at trace concentrations in groundwater

The presence of pesticides (alachlor, metolachlor and atrazine) is a major concern for the production of drinking water. However, their main metabolites, namely oxanilic acid (OA) and ethanesulfonic acid (ESA) for alachlor and metolachlor, and desethyl- and deisopropyl-atrazine for atrazine, are also encountered in natural waters. The adsorption of these micropollutants onto two types of granular activated carbons under dynamic (fixed bed) conditions was studied. The performance of the adsorbers was evaluated under operating conditions comparable to those found for the production of drinkable water, i.e. inlet concentrations of 1.0 μg L−1 for each pesticide and metabolite added to groundwater containing 1.5 mCL−1 of natural organic matter. Regardless of the location in the column or the duration of the treatment, humic acids were preferentially removed compared to fulvic acids. As for micropollutants, a pseudo-steady state was reached after filtration of approximately 2.0 m3 of water (6000 equivalent bed volumes). The retention of micropollutants onto granular activated carbons is driven by their adsorption kinetics. Moreover, in the case of alachlor and metolachlor, but not atrazine, different adsorption profiles were observed between the parent pesticide and its metabolites. Desethyl- and deisopropyl-atrazine, were adsorbed quickly; the mass transfer zone was narrow (approximately 60 cm) with a superficial velocity of the liquid phase equal to 10 m h−1. By contrast, the OA and ESA metabolites reached breakthrough when the mass transfer zones were larger than the height of the columns. The Amundson model was used to determine the adsorption rate and adsorption capacity each pollutant.

Biological nitrate removal from a drinking water supply with an aerobic granular sludge technology: An environmental and economic assessment

Nitrate pollution of groundwater, mainly from agricultural applications, is a widespread water quality problem in many countries. The aim of this study was to identify and compare the main environmental impacts and costs associated with removing nitrate from groundwater under a conventional treatment technology and a technology based on a biological treatment process (denitrification using aerobic granular sludge). The analysis focused on the first real-world experience of an industrial-scale implementation of said technology, applied to the drinking water supply in a small town in Spain. The methods selected for the environmental and economic evaluations were life cycle assessment and cost-effectiveness analysis, respectively. The drinking water treatment technologies under study were a conventional reverse osmosis plant and a plant using a biological treatment called ecogranularwater. The analysis of these two drinking water production processes was divided into two phases: structure and water treatment. This study demonstrates that the biological technology produces drinking water in a more environmentally-friendly, cost-effective way, and with lower energy costs. The greatest environmental impacts from the reverse osmosis technology occurred in the water treatment phase due to the high levels of energy consumption (up to 1.68 kWh m−3 higher than with the ecogranularwater technology). In the structure phase, the biological technology contributed more than reverse osmosis in all impact categories, with values ranging from 91% in freshwater ecotoxicity to 98% in stratospheric ozone depletion. The cost of producing 1 m3 of water was estimated as 43% lower with the ecogranularwater technology compared to reverse osmosis. In order to further lessen the environmental impact of the biological technology, efforts should be focused on reducing and optimizing energy use and making improvements to the design of the structure. This biological technology proved a good alternative for small and medium-sized municipalities with problems of nitrate-polluted water. The decision to apply technological innovations in drinking water treatments to remove nitrates can be supported by environmental and economic studies.

ФІЗИЧНІ І ТЕХНІКО-ЕКОНОМІЧНІ АСПЕКТИ СУЧАСНИХ МЕТОДІВ ПІДГОТОВКИ ВОДИ ДЛЯ ТЕПЛОВОЇ ТА АТОМНОЇ ЕНЕРГЕТИКИ

A critical analysis of modern electric-physical and electric-chemical methods of water treatment is given in the context of the efficiency of treatment surface natural waters for the thermal and nuclear power engineering. Physical aspects of electric-chemical coagulation are considered. Theoretical values of the specific energy of destruction of passivation films on the surface of aluminum and iron electrodes, as well as the minimum voltages required for this, are calculated. The mechanisms of conversion of the energy of discharge pulses in a layer of granules of metal forming a coagulant immersed in water are described. According to the described model of energy conversion processes, the minimum theoretical values of the specific energy of the formation of erosive Al and Fe particles from molten and evaporated metal are calculated. A technique for studying the energy efficiency of plasma-erosion coagulation under laboratory conditions is described, and the results of these studies are presented. The specific energy of purification of 1 m3 of water by electric-chemical and plasma-erosion coagulation was calculated in various modes using Al and Fe as metals forming the coagulant. Based on the analysis of the obtained results, recommendations for ways to improve the energy efficiency of plasma-erosion coagulation modes are given. References 29, figure 1, table 1.

Reconstruction and modernization of inter-farm irrigation systems – the basis of energy efficiency of water supply in irrigation

Abstract. The paper presents the results of the analysis of the current state, problems, and the directions of irrigation development in Ukraine. A comprehensive analysis of the technical condition and existing potential of reclamation infrastructure, including inter-farm engineering infrastructure of irrigation networks at the Lower Dniester Irrigation System (LDIS) was made. It was found that the equipment of the pumping stations of LDIS has long been depreciated and is in very poor technical condition, water losses during transportation are 32-35% of the primary water intake, engineering infrastructure has almost run out of its resource and technical condition and parameters do not meet the required level. The average specific power energy consumption for1 water pumping at LDIS per 1000 m3 is 351 kWh, and the share of energy consumption costs in the prime cost of supplied water for irrigation is about 60%. The operation of obsolete equipment is carried out under the conditions of a severe deficit of budget funding, there are almost no funds for current and major repairs of equipment and facilities. The prime cost of water transportation for irrigation per m3 was determined, and the cost of 1 m3 of water for water users was calculated.
 The sources of financial support for the operation of LDIS were investigated. The operation of LDIS in 2020 was financed by 66% of the state budget and by 34% from the revenues obtained from water users. It was specified that the system of service cost reimbursement does not cover the cost of water supply for irrigation. Based on the results of the technical and economic analysis and energy audit, the total investment needed for a modernization and reconstruction project for LDIS was calculated. The main results of the project implementation are presented, which will increase the volume of gross agricultural output by 1.6 - 1.8 billion UAH / year. Due to the introduction of a set of reconstruction measures for the reconstruction of NDIS, the specific energy consumption of water supply at the water intake point will be reduced from 1.03 kWh / m3 to 0.65 kWh / m3 or by 37%. The total energy savings will be from 0.03 to 0.21-0.25 kWh / m3.
 Keywords: irrigation, audit, technical condition, energy efficiency, modernization, reconstruction, investments

Analyzing the water-energy-environment nexus of irrigated wheat and maize production in Albania

This paper analyzed the water-energy-environmental interactions in conventional wheat and maize production on a generic farm in Albania using a cradle-to-farm gate life cycle assessment (LCA) and energy analysis. The inputs considered were seeds, fuel, electricity, fertilizers, plant protection, irrigation water, and machinery. Energy use efficiency, specific energy, energy productivity, and net energy gain in wheat production were calculated as 4.95, 2.63 MJ kg−1, 0.38 kg MJ −1, and 49,692 MJ ha−1, respectively. For maize, these values were 7.63, 1.93 MJ kg−1, 0.52 MJ kg−1, and 82,513 MJ ha−1, respectively. Producing 1 ton of wheat requires 2626 MJ of energy, 288 m3 of water, and generates a global warming potential (GWP) of 242.2 kg CO2-eq, terrestrial acidification potential (TAP) of 4.05 kg SO2-eq, and freshwater eutrophication (FEP) of 0.135 kg P-eq. On other hand, maize requires 1927.1 MJ of energy, 561 m3 of water, and generates a GWP of 181.1 kg CO2-eq, TAP of 2.82 kg SO2-eq, and FEP of 0.1 kg P-eq. The wheat and maize production produces a single environmental score of 69.3 and 60.2 points where the foreground subsystem (on-farm) contributes to more than 75% of the total environmental load. Irrigation, machinery use, and fertilizer use and application caused most of the environmental impacts and energy consumption. As a wide range of agriculture modernization projects is taking place across Albania, footprint indicators and energy analysis are recommended to design sound farming and irrigation practices and explore synergies and trade-offs of agricultural intensification.