Lunch Period Research Articles

Time Required for Elementary Students to Eat Lunch

Studies have indicated that the children who participate in National School Lunch Programs (NSLP) have better nutrient intakes than those who do not, resulting in better ability to concentrate and more attentive behavior. Concerns have been raised that students are not provided with enough time to receive and consume their lunches. A field research method was employed in two elementary schools in Pittsburgh, NY (PL) and Ellensburg, WA (EL) to determine total travel time (TTT), student total waiting time (TWT), and opportunity time to eat (OTE) at each location. 1877 student observations were made over 20 days of data collection. The lunch period in EL consisted of five, 15minute staggered lunch periods each followed by a 15minute recess. PL provided 40 to 45minutes of combined time for lunch followed by recess. Students ate in the cafeteria in EL and in the classroom in PL. TTT consisted of travel to the cafeteria and in PL, travel back to the classroom. (EL: 1.68 ± 0.68min; PL: 6.62 ± 2.27min; (all data are means ± SD), p < 0.0001). TWT consisted of waiting for service and for the cashier (EL: 3.06 ± 1.63min; PL: 2.65 ± 1.72min, p< 0.0001). OTE (EL: 11.08 ± 3.07min; PL: 11.98 ± 4.35min, p < 0.05) consisted of consumption time (EL: 7.47 ± 2.5min; PL: 7.25 ± 2.95min, NS) and non-consumption time (EL: 3.95 ± 3.35min; PL: 4.73 ± 3.47min, p < 0.05). Consumption time significantly decreased from kindergarten to fifth grade by 2.68min indicating students may be conditioned to eat fester as they progress through school. To meet the consumption and non-consumption needs of nearly all elementary students, a lunch period of at least a 25minutes is required.

Do middle School Students Have Enough Time to Eat Lunch?

Studies have indicated that the children who participate in National School Lunch Programs (NSLP) have better nutrient intakes than those who do not, resulting in better ability to concentrate and more attentive behavior. Concerns have been raised that students are not provided with enough time to receive and consume their lunches. A field research method was employed in two middle schools in Pittsburgh, NY (PL) and Ellensburg, WA (EL) to determine waiting time in service line (WSL), waiting time in cashier line (WCL), and travel time to the eating area (TTEA), the sum of these resulted in total student waiting time (TSWT). Opportunity time to eat (OTE), was also measured which consisted of consumption time (CT) and non-consumption time (NCT). Observations of 3583 students were made over 20 days of data collection. The lunch period in EL consisted of two, 35minute staggered lunch periods. PL provided six, 22minute staggered lunch periods. WSL was significantly longer in PL (PL: 2.98 ± 1.80min; EL: 1.60 ± 1..88min (all data are means ± SD), p < 0.05) resulting in a longer TSWT before students could start eating their meal. (PL: 3.75 ± 1.92min; EL: 2.53 ± 1.88min, p < 0.05) TTEA was slightly longer in EL (EL: 0.48 ± 0.40min; PL: 0.30 ± 0.30min, p < 0.05). WCL, OTE, CT, and NCT were all similar between the two schools. OTE averaged 11.75min of which a mean of 8.08min was devoted to consumption activities. Over 90 percent of the students had completed TSWT by 7minutes and had completed OTE by 12minutes for a total required lunch time of 19minutes. Results indicated that the 22minutes provided in PL and 35minutes provided in EL were sufficient to meet the TSWT, CT, and NCT needs of the students in these two schools.

The use of observational methods for monitoring sun-protection activities in schools.

Evaluation of health promotion interventions aimed at behavioural or environmental change involves assessing change that occurs as a result of the program. Direct observational methods can be used for this purpose and this paper describes three such methods that we pilot tested for use in a 5-year intervention study aimed at reducing sun exposure in primary school children. (1) Monitoring 'No hat, no play' policies. This method involved video taping children in selected school play areas during lunch time and analysing the content of the videos to assess the proportion of children wearing various types of hats. (2) Assessing shade provision in the playground. This method involved taking aerial photographs of each school and using them to estimate the proportion of shade in play areas available to children at lunchtime. (3) Shade use. This involved children wearing polysulphone film badges to measure the amount of UV-B exposure they received during one lunch period, relative to the total possible dose registered on index badges. Each method was implemented successfully, and we demonstrated that the video and aerial photography methods produced highly reproducible results and that all three methods were feasible. These three methods will be used in our intervention study to assess longitudinal change in schools' sun-protection policy and practice.

Effect of Acarbose Taken Just before and after a Meal on Plasma Glucose Level in Japanese Healthy Subjects.

We studied the effect of a patient forgetting to take acarbose and also investigated whether there is any benefit in taking it within certain time periods after a meal. The subjects consisted of 10 volunteers and the tests were conducted during lunch periods. Over 6 test days the subjects ingested breakfast (100 kcal; carbohydrate 78%) and lunch (624 kcal; carbohydrate 56%) each day. On the first test day, as a control, no acarbose was given. Blood was drawn 7 times to determine the levels of plasma glucose and immunoreactive insulin (IRI) (just before and after a meal, and after 30 minutes, 45 minutes and 60 minutes, 90 minutes, and 120 minutes after a meal). The same 10 subjects then took 100 mg of acarbose just before a meal, and 30 minutes, 45 minutes and 60 minutes after starting a meal respectively on different days. The levels of plasma glucose and IRI were measured for the 7 blood drawing times. The levels of plasma glucose of the subjects who took acarbose just before a meal were significantly lower at the 5 times, from just after meal to 90 minutes after starting time of a meal, compared to the controls. The levels of IRI in the subjects who took acarbose just before meals were lower at all times compared to the controls and other intakes. There was no significant difference in the area under the blood concentration-time curve (AUC0-120) 1of plasma glucose during the 120 minute period after starting a meal between the subjects who took acarbose just before a meal, just after starting a meal, and 30 minutes after starting a meal. It was found that taking acarbose was therefore the most effecctive just before a meal but, if this is forgotten, it can still be effective if taken 15-30 minutes after starting a meal.

Healthy Health Education for Your School and Your Students

Students with health problems that affect their ability to learn need access to health services. When health services are available on or near school grounds—in school health rooms and school-based or school- linked health centers—students can schedule appointments during study halt or lunch period without missing class.

Chaos, Complexity, and Fuzziness: Science Looks at Teaching English

hen I visited a grade eight writing workshop, one boy sat and did nothing. I asked what was up, and he told me he couldn't think of anything to write about. As I had done with hundreds of students before, I tried to help him find a topic by asking him what, he was interested in. He said WWF wrestling, and I responded that he could write about that. After his predictable OK, I went to talk to some other students. About seven months later, I ran into his teacher at the mall, and he told me that the boy got two other boys together, wrote a Wednesday Wrestling Weekly that the three did for the rest of the school year, eventually selling tencent copies during lunch periods. My standard response to a student I didn't know made in passing during a single visit turned into the major writing work for three students for the best part of one school year. How do we explain these chance events in teaching English? How do we explain the way events in workshop classrooms like the one above arise, order themselves, then recede, students writing or reading, revising or responding, working alone or with others, balancing diverse goals and the means to them? And how do we explain our role as teacher in student-centered classrooms

Factors Affecting Participation of Students in the School Lunch Program in Cincinnati Public Schools

ABSTRACT This study reports high school students' attitudes toward the school lunch program. One-thousaed, eight hundred and four high school students were randomly selected to participate in a study of factors affecting school lunch participation in the Cincinnati Public Schools. Using a questionnaire, students were asked their opinions, feelings and attitudes toward the school lunch program. Results showed that the quality and variety of food offered were significant factors affecting the student's decision to participate in the school lunch program. The length of the lunch period and the amount of time spent waiting in line also were significant factors that affected school lunch participation.

Estimation of Plate Waste of School Lunches Served to Children of Low Socioeconomic Status

A total of 260 students (50% girls, 100% black) of low socioeconomic status, in grades 3 to 6 in one elementary school, were observed by trained nutritionists to assess amount of plate waste of menu items served. During 21 school lunch periods, amount of waste for each menu item was visually estimated and recorded using 2 control trays on each observation day and a 6-point rating scale for consumption. Between 60%–90% of the students selected the menu items, starch (61 %), dessert (80%), bread (92%), fruit (93%), and entree (99%). Only 43% selected the vegetable menu items (e.g., green beans, peas, broccoli, corn, mixed vegetables), and 36% selected the salad when served. Six percent selected lowfat milk, 48% whole milk, and 55% chocolate milk. The percent of students who did not eat the whole menu item was highest for salad (69%), followed by the vegetable (64%), bread (62%), starch (47%), entree (43%), and fruit (33%) and dessert (32%) menu items. Approximately 44% of students did not even taste the vegetable, salad, or bread. The percentage of students who did not consume all of the menu items selected ranged from 30% (grade 3) to 49% (grade 5), with girls wasting more than boys. Compared to boys, girls wasted more of the menu items: vegetable (p<0.005), chocolate milk (p<0.02), and bread (p<0.03). A fruit and vegetable preference questionnaire was administered to all of the 5th (n=74) and 6th (n=70) graders. The vegetables students least preferred were carrots, spinach, green beans, peas, and broccoli; while com and tomatoes were the most favorite. Students consumed more vegetables at home than at school where students felt the vegetables had poor taste and were prepared always the same way. Strategies for increasing vegetable consumption, along with decreasing plate waste of school lunches should be a priority in our efforts for promoting health of our children by the year 2000, particularly in schools with children of low socioeconomic status.

Boilerbaisse: An Outbreak of Methemoglobinemia in New Jersey in 1992

On October 20, 1992, > 40 children from one elementary school visited the school nurse due to the acute onset of blue lips and hands, vomiting, and headache during and after the school lunch periods. Forty-nine children were seen by physicians that day and 14 were hospitalized. Laboratory analysis revealed methemoglobinemia in many of the children. All recovered in 36 hours. A case-control study was supplemented by environmental and laboratory investigations to determine the outbreak source. Cases were selected based on the laboratory diagnosis of methemoglobinemia (methemoglobin level > 2%). Children whose methemoglobin levels were missing or < 2% were excluded from analysis. Controls were obtained by selecting every third name from a school roster. The parents of 29 students who met the case definition and 52 controls were interviewed. All 29 cases and 33% (17/52) of the controls ate soup during the school lunch (odds ratio undefined, lower 95% confidence limit 16.1). Two pots of soup were prepared from ready-to-serve cans, which were diluted with water and enriched with a commercially prepared flavor enhancer. The school's boiler, dormant during the previous 5 months, was restarted on the morning of the outbreak. The boiler also served as a tankless hot water heater. Laboratory analysis of the soup identified abnormally high quantities of nitrite (459 ppm) and sodium metaborate, major components of the boiler water treatment solution. Undiluted soup from the same lot had 2.0 ppm nitrites; the flavor enhancer had 2.2 ppm nitrites. Nitrites were present in the hot potable water system (4 to 10 ppm) and absent in the cold potable water system. This outbreak of methemoglobinemia due to nitrite poisoning was traced to soup contaminated by nitrites in a boiler additive. Nitrites are ubiquitous and potentially hazardous inorganic ions. Extreme caution should be used when the possibility for toxic human exposure to nitrites exists.

Marital satisfaction and family stress as predictors of classroom behaviors

The purpose of this research was to examine the relationship between parents' perceptions of marital satisfaction and family stress and their third grade children's classroom behavior. Twenty-one married couples completed questionnaires during home visits. Behavior observations were made from videotapes of children recorded in their classroom during lunch and group academic periods on each of three days. Frequencies of peer interactions, solitary behaviors, and teacher interactions were coded. Regression analyses showed that mothers' level of marital satisfaction (but not fathers') predicted their children's frequency of peer interactions during lunch. Fathers' level of perceived family stress (but not mothers') predicted their children's frequency of peer interactions during lunch. Neither measure for either parent was related to the frequency of peer interactions, solitary behaviors, or teacher interactions observed during the academic sessions. These findings highlight the importance of assessing the potential differential relation of parent variables to children's trans-situational behaviors, and the examination of these variables in relation to different social-environmental contexts in which children participate outside the home.

Impact of telecommuting on spatial and temporal patterns of household travel

A spatial and temporal analysis of travel diary data collected during the State of California Telecommuting Pilot Project is performed to determine the impacts of telecommuting on household travel behavior. The analysis is based on geocoded trip data where missing trips and trip attributes have been augmented to the extent possible. The results confirm the earlier finding that the Pilot Project telecommuters substantially reduced travel; on telecommuting days, the telecommuters made virtually no commute trips, reduced peak-period trips by 60%, total distance traveled by 75%, and freeway miles by 90%. The spatial analysis of the trip records has shown that the telecommuters chose non-work destinations that are closer to home; they exhibited contracted action spaces after the introduction of telecommuting. Importantly, this contraction took place on both telecommuting days and commuting days. The telecommuters distributed their trips, over the day and avoided peak-period travel on telecommuting days. Non-work trips, however, show similar patterns of temporal distribution on telecommuting days and commuting days. Non-work trips continued to be made during the lunch period and late afternoon and evening hours.

Social facilitation of the spontaneous meal size of humans occurs regardless of time, place, alcohol or snacks

The amount eaten by humans in spontaneously ingested meals is positively correlated with the number of other people present. This could be due to a social facilitation or may be produced as an artifact of a covariation produced by a third factor. Possible covariations produced by time and location of eating, alcohol intake, and snack/meal ingestion were investigated by paying 78 adult humans to maintain 7-day diaries of everything they ingested, when and where they ingested it, and the number of other people present. The results demonstrate that, although the covariances exist, they could not account for the social correlation. Strong, positive and significant correlations between meal size and the number of other people present were found separately for meals eaten during the breakfast period, the lunch period and the dinner period, eaten in restaurants, at home and elsewhere, eaten accompanied by alcohol intake or without alcohol, and for only snacks or only meals. The results suggest that the correlation results from a true social facilitation of eating and that this facilitation is an important determinant of eating regardless of whether alcohol is ingested with the meal, a snack or a meal is eaten and regardless of when or where it is eaten.

Pulmonary function and symptom responses after 6.6-hour exposure to 0.12 ppm ozone with moderate exercise.

Episodes occasionally occur when ambient ozone (O3) levels remain at or near 0.12 ppm for more than 6 h. Small decrements In lung function have been reported following 2-h exposures to 0.12 ppm O3. For short exposures to higher O3 concentrations, lung function decrements are a function of exposure duration. Thus, we investigated the hypothesis that prolonged exposure to 0.12 ppm O3 would result in progressively larger changes in respiratory function and symptoms over time. Ten nonsmoking males (18-33 yr) were exposed once to clean air and once to 0.12 ppm O3 for 6.6 h. Exposures consisted of six 50-min exercise periods, each followed by 10-min rest and measurement; a 35-min lunch period followed the third exercise period. Exercise ventilation averaged approximately 40 L/min. Forced expiratory and inspiratory spirometry and respiratory symptoms were measured prior to exposure and after each exercise. Airway reactivity to methachollne was determined after each exposure. After correcting for the air exposure...

Noise control case history: Cafeteria environment

Complaints from employees at a local research institution about difficulties in communicating while eating lunch in the Institute's cafeteria led the institution to request recommendations as to possible facility modifications. Premodification sound surveys were conducted with and without the employees present. Recommendations were then made to management as to facility modifications that would be expected to significantly lower the cafeteria's sound level during the peak lunch period. After the recommendations were implemented, sound surveys were conducted to verify the predicted levels of noise reduction. The facility modifications included extensive use of sound-absorbing wall panels, a lowered and improved acoustical ceiling, and the construction of a partial barrier between the food-serving line and the eating area. At maximum usage, a 12 dB(A) (A-weighted sound-pressure level) reduction in the cafeteria's sound level was achieved [from 75 to 63 dB(A)]. No additional complaints have been received from the Institute's employees regarding noise in the cafeteria.

Simulation of a Fast-Food Operation Where Dissatisfied Customers Renege

This paper presents the results of experiments with a simulation model for the operation of a fast-food kiosk. The kiosk was located in an office complex where a large lunch population, consisting mostly of office workers, was served by a number of competing food facilities. Each customer of the kiosk had an initial expectation of speed and quality of service. A customer arriving at the kiosk might decide not to wait, in view of the length of any queue in front of the kiosk and how long he was willing to wait. This is called balking. If the customer decided to join the queue, he observed the speed of the service others ahead of him received while in the queue, which he used to modify his own perception of the time he would have to spend waiting. A comparison of his time value and the expected wait would lead the customer to a decision as to leaving the queue or staying on. A customer who thus leaves is said to have reneged. A terminating simulation of the operation of the kiosk during a lunch period was based on a Bayesian approach. Experiments with the model revealed many interesting and useful relationships to help better understand the effect of the number of servers in the kiosk and of the food quality on the balking and reneging of the customers.

Circadian rhythms of the spontaneous meal pattern, macronutrient intake, and mood of humans

Circadian (24-hour) rhythms in the feeding behavior of humans were investigated using diary self-reports of spontaneous food intake. Eight male and 30 female undergraduate students recorded what they ate, when they ate it, and their mood at the time of ingestion in a diary over a consecutive nine day period. Self-ratings of depression, energy, and anxiety were made at the beginning of each meal on three seven-point scales. The total amount of food energy in each meal as well as the amount of protein, carbohydrate, and fat, the intervals prior to and following the meals, and the satiety and deprivation ratios were calculated. The food energy contained in the stomach at the beginning and end of each meal was estimated with a mathematical model. These variables were evaluated in relation to the time of meal occurrence during the day. Fluctuations in the levels of self-rated energy and anxiety, but not depression, were detected during the day. Clear 24-hour rhythms were identified for the amount eaten and the macronutrients ingested during the day with decreases for males and increases for females. The amount eaten per meal and the meal's content of carbohydrate or fat, but not protein, varied over the day with peaks at the lunch and dinner periods. A clear sex difference without circadian variation was apparent with the deprivation ratios. This suggests that males eat larger meals than females because of a heightened responsivity to deprivation and not to a smaller response to the satiating properties of food. Preprandial correlations were found for meals occurring either during the breakfast or the dinner periods. No postprandial correlations were found. These data demonstrate that the preprandial correlations are not an artifact produced by the 24-hour rhythm and suggests that they reflect a basic regulatory strategy employed by humans. As the day progressed, postmeal intervals and satiety ratios decreased, while premeal intervals increased. This suggests that humans obtain less satiety from a given amount of food later in the day than earlier. It is postulated that this represents eating which anticipates the overnight fast. These data clearly demonstrate the efficacy of the approach and the orderly, analyzable nature of the spontaneous eating behavior of humans.

Duration of negative practice and the reduction of leg pounding of a traumatically brain‐injured adult

AbstractThis study evaluated the relative efficacy of long (1 minute) and short (15 seconds) durations of negative practice for reducing self‐stimulatory leg pounding of a traumatically brain‐injured adult. In individual social skill training classes, long negative practice and short negative practice were administered concurrently in an alternating treatments design. Generalization of treatment effects outside of training sessions was assessed during the client's lunch period. The results revealed that both durations of negative practice were equally effective in reducing leg pounding during training sessions. However, the effects of training did not generalize to settings in which the practice contingency was not enforced. Pounding was more frequent and negative practice somewhat less effective during periods of high social stimulation.

Covergowns and the Control of Operating Room Contamination

This study assessed the effectiveness of cotton/polyester covergowns in protecting scrubsuits against bacterial contamination when operating room (OR) personnel are outside the clean environment of the operating suite. Rodac impression plates were used to measure bacterial contamination. The subjects were nurses working a normal daily OR routine. Bacterial colony counts on the right shoulder decreased when covergowns were worn over scrubsuits during the lunch period outside the OR and when fresh scrubsuits were put on following the lunch period. Colony counts rose over the lunch period when scrubsuits were worn unprotected outside the OR and when scrubsuits were removed before and put on again following lunch. Left thigh samples showed no significant effects of experimental treatments and yielded a mean colony count 2.8 times higher than right shoulder samples. Fifty-three percent of subjects were positive for Staphylococcus aureus and 16% yielded positive plates on 3 or more study days. The incidence of S. aureus contamination was affected by experimental treatments in a way similar to overall bacterial contamination. The results indicated that wearing covergowns protects against above-waist bacterial contamination of scrubsuits.

Activity analysis of pharmacy-directed drug-administration technicians

The percentage of time required by drug-administration technicians to perform predefined activities was determined using a work-sampling technique. Two trained pharmacists used random-sampling techniques to estimate the amount of time technicians spent performing activities in each of four major work categories. These categories, which included drug administration and related activities, clerical, communication, and "other," were divided into 24 activity elements, and technicians were randomly observed during the first or second work shift (8 1/2 hours) for 20 days in a one-month period. Drug-administration technicians spent the most time in the drug administration and related activities category (40.4 +/- 2.5%), followed by "other" (24.1 +/- 2.2%), communication (17.9 +/- 2.0%), and clerical (17.6 +/- 2.0%) activities. In the "other" category, technicians were not observed 11.6 +/- 1.7% of the time, but this was expected since the technicians were granted a 30-minute lunch period and two 15-minute breaks. A work-sampling technique was effective in quantifying activities performed by drug-administration technicians.

Bio-Engineering in Orthopaedics

A one-day symposium on the above subject was organized by the Trent Regional Post-Graduate Committee and held in the Post-Graduate Medical Teaching Centre at Doncaster Royal Infirmary on Thursday 19 March, 1981. The symposium was attended by some forty persons and the morning session was chaired by Mr R. W. Porter. Dr D. Ottewell of the Doncaster Royal Infirmary Bio-engineering Research Unit chaired the afternoon session and delegates had the opportunity to see a poster display and exhibition during the lunch period. Abstracts of seven papers* presented at the symposium have been collected by Mr R. W. Porter and they are included in the current issue of the Journal for the benefit of our readers.