Lunar Infrastructure Research Articles

Multi-step thermal design of microwave vacuum heating to basaltic regolith simulant towards lunar base construction.

Humanned exploration and extended stay on the Moon are the hottest challenges today. We report highly robust materials by microwave heating under high-vacuum conditions (10- 3 Pa) from a basaltic regolith simulant (FJS-1) to ensure the feasibility of lunar infrastructure construction. The violent degassing dynamics were revealed by monitoring vacuum pressure during heating and analyzing the compounds evolved from basaltic silicate compounds: thermal pyrolysis of silicate compounds became more pronounced above 1000 oC, leading to a catastrophic deformation accompanied by forming countless pores of several hundred µm sizes. The preferential formation of the magnetite phase in vacuum heating dominantly caused the radical change in microwave absorption capacity compared with conventional heating routes using an electrical furnace in atmospheric conditions. Besides, the in-situ measurement of dielectric properties during microwave vacuum heating clarified the increase in one order of magnitude from 100 to 1000 oC. Based on the presumed phenomena during microwave-vacuum heating for basaltic regolith, we propose a new thermal design concept to overcome the practical limitations of microwave technology. The multi-step temperature profile successfully fabricated a highly robust product that demonstrated world-class mechanical performance, equivalent to the compressive strength of 65MPa without any vigorous hydrostatic cold press as a pre-treatment.

Thermal Weathering of 3D-Printed Lunar Regolith Simulant Composites.

The production of lunar regolith composites is a promising venture, especially when enabled by extrusion-based additive manufacturing techniques such as direct ink write. However, both three-dimensional (3D) printing production and usage of polymer composites containing regolish on the lunar surface are challenges due to harsh environmental conditions such as severe thermal cycling. While thermal degradation in polymer composites under thermal cycling has been studied, there is limited understanding of how polymer properties impact the mechanical performance of lunar regolith composites when both printing and usage are carried out under extreme thermal conditions. Here, we aim to bridge that gap through the creation of composites containing a lunar Highlands regolith simulant suspended in an ultraviolet (UV) curable binder, which were printed at -30 °C and thermally cycled between weekly lunar day (127 °C) and weekly night (-190 °C) temperatures. We validate that thermal stresses cause both physical and chemical degradation since the regolith simulant composites become stiffer, more porous, and show yellowing after exposure to thermal cycling. Moreover, we indicate that chemical degradation mechanisms seem to compete with residual polymerization in certain formulations. We attribute this phenomenon to partial crystallization of monomer species during printing at -30 °C, resulting in low vinyl bond conversion during initial curing. The results presented here shed light on the intricate interplay between thermal stresses, uncured polymer properties, and degradation mechanisms, which can help guide future use cases of regolith composites for lunar infrastructure needs.

Bio-Inspired Strategies Are Adaptable to Sensors Manufactured on the Moon.

Bio-inspired strategies for robotic sensing are essential for in situ manufactured sensors on the Moon. Sensors are one crucial component of robots that should be manufactured from lunar resources to industrialize the Moon at low cost. We are concerned with two classes of sensor: (a) position sensors and derivatives thereof are the most elementary of measurements; and (b) light sensing arrays provide for distance measurement within the visible waveband. Terrestrial approaches to sensor design cannot be accommodated within the severe limitations imposed by the material resources and expected manufacturing competences on the Moon. Displacement and strain sensors may be constructed as potentiometers with aluminium extracted from anorthite. Anorthite is also a source of silica from which quartz may be manufactured. Thus, piezoelectric sensors may be constructed. Silicone plastic (siloxane) is an elastomer that may be derived from lunar volatiles. This offers the prospect for tactile sensing arrays. All components of photomultiplier tubes may be constructed from lunar resources. However, the spatial resolution of photomultiplier tubes is limited so only modest array sizes can be constructed. This requires us to exploit biomimetic strategies: (i) optical flow provides the visual navigation competences of insects implemented through modest circuitry, and (ii) foveated vision trades the visual resolution deficiencies with higher resolution of pan-tilt motors enabled by micro-stepping. Thus, basic sensors may be manufactured from lunar resources. They are elementary components of robotic machines that are crucial for constructing a sustainable lunar infrastructure. Constraints imposed by the Moon may be compensated for using biomimetic strategies which are adaptable to non-Earth environments.

Is the Lunar Economy Solely for the Space Industry? Opportunities for Nonspace Companies in Lunar Infrastructure Leveraging Technological Synergies

Is the Lunar Economy Solely for the Space Industry? Opportunities for Nonspace Companies in Lunar Infrastructure Leveraging Technological Synergies

Autonomous construction of lunar infrastructure with in-situ boulders

Significant infrastructure is required to establish a long-term presence of humans on the lunar surface. In-situ resource utilization (ISRU) is a fundamental approach to ensure the viability of such construction. Here, we investigate the feasibility of constructing blast shields as one example of lunar infrastructure using unprocessed lunar boulders and an autonomous robotic excavator. First, we estimate the volume of unprocessed material required for the construction of blast shield segments. Secondly, we quantify the amount of available boulders in two exploration zones (located at the Shackleton-Henson Connecting Ridge and the Aristarchus Plateau pyroclastic deposit) using LRO NAC images and boulder size-frequency distribution laws. In addition, we showcase an alternative approach that relies on Diviner rock abundance data. Thirdly, we use a path planning algorithm to derive the distance, energy, and time required to collect local material and construct blast shield elements. Our results show that our construction method requires two orders of magnitudes less energy than alternative ISRU construction methods, while maintaining realistic mission time and payload capacity margins.

Radiator production for Pylon Fission Surface Power System through lunar In-Situ Resource Utilization

Background Fission Surface Power (FSP) is currently being considered by NASA for future lunar exploration and Ultra-Safe Nuclear Corporation (USNC) is developing their Pylon FSP system. Methods This paper introduces the system focusing on the materials used for its main components. It also analyses the lunar availability of the elements required to produce these components and suggests that In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) should be considered. Results As a result of the conducted analysis, it is concluded that since mass is the most important parameter when launching payload from Earth, the Pylon component with the largest mass should be considered further. The heaviest system component is the power system which, however, consists of many other components that are made from various materials. The second heaviest component is the radiator made of Titanium (Ti) metal heat pipes and Graphite Fiber Reinforced Composite (GFRC) face sheets with water as the working fluid. Since the production of Ti metal on the Moon is non-economical, Aluminum (Al) metal utilized for the International Space Station (ISS) is considered. Lunar infrastructure required to produce Al using ISRU is already available. Further analysis will be conducted in the future to look into laser 3D printing technologies. Lunar Resources Inc. is already developing techniques for Al extraction from regolith for the production of Al wires. Conclusions This research shows that all the required technologies already exist, and the next step will be to identify how the obtained Al can be manufactured into radiators. It will also be important to identify how much of the total radiator mass is Al metal to increase the fidelity of this analysis Future research will find the break-even point between the Pylon Ti radiators launched from Earth and the production of Al radiators on the Moon.

Experimental Study on Geopolymerization of Lunar Soil Simulant under Dry Curing and Sealed Curing.

The construction of lunar surface roads is conducive to improving the efficiency of lunar space transportation. The use of lunar in situ resources is the key to the construction of lunar bases. In order to explore the strength development of a simulated lunar soil geopolymer at lunar temperature, geopolymers with different sodium hydroxide (NaOH) contents were prepared by using simulated lunar regolith materials. The temperature of the high-temperature section of the moon was simulated as the curing condition, and the difference in compressive strength between dry curing and sealed curing was studied. The results show that the high-temperature range of lunar temperature from 52.7 °C to 76.3 °C was the suitable curing period for the geopolymers, and the maximum strength of 72 h was 6.31 MPa when the NaOH content was 8% in the sealed-curing mode. The 72 h strength had a maximum value of 6.87 MPa when the NaOH content was 12% under dry curing. Choosing a suitable solution can reduce the consumption of activators required for geopolymers to obtain unit strength, effectively reduce the quality of materials transported from the Earth for lunar infrastructure construction, and save transportation costs. The microscopic results show that the simulated lunar soil generated gel substances and needle-like crystals under the alkali excitation of NaOH, forming a cluster and network structure to improve the compressive strength of the geopolymer.

АНАЛИЗ ПОКАЗАТЕЛЕЙ НАДЕЖНОСТИ СИСТЕМЫ ЖИЗНЕОБЕСПЕЧЕНИЯ ЛУННОЙ БАЗЫ ПЕРВОГО ЭТАПА ОСВОЕНИЯ ЛУНЫ

It is proposed to provide an initial manned Lunar base with an updated life support system (LSS) exploited at the Mir orbital station and ISS in context of such criteria as minimal mass expenditure and maximal closure. Preliminary estimation of such LSS reliability was made, as well feasibility and suitability to improve regeneration subsystems in order to reduce expensive resupply delivery and save crew time for assembly of the lunar infrastructure. LSS reliability is defines as a probability of crew loss in consequence of failure of an essential regeneration subsystem. It was shown that with a 5-fold increase of the mean error-free running time of all subsystems the probability of crew loss may be equal to 0.005–0.01 at the condition that each subsystem has 2 cold redundancy units if its functional time is two years, 3 units if its functional times is 10 years and 4 units if its functional time is 15 years. Calculations made with the use of 3 cost-reliability models demonstrated that the proposed updating is justified, as the cost of subsystems will increase in 4.6 times on the average.

Printability and hardening performance of three-dimensionally-printed geopolymer based on lunar regolith simulant for automated construction of lunar infrastructure

Using an in situ lunar regolith as a construction material in combination with 3D printing not only reduces the weight of materials carried from the Earth but also improves the automation of lunar infrastructure construction. This study aims to improve the printability of a geopolymer based on a BH-1 lunar regolith simulant, including the extrudability, open time, and buildability, by controlling the temperature and adding admixtures. Rheological parameters were used to represent printability with different water-to-binder ratios, printing temperatures, and contents of additives. The mechanical properties of the hardening geopolymer with different filling paths and loading directions were tested. The results show that heating the printed filaments with a water-to-binder ratio of 0.32 at 80 °C can adjust the printability without adding any additive, which can reduce the construction cost of lunar infrastructure. The printability of the BH-1 geopolymer can also be improved by adding 0.3% Attagel-50 and 0.5% polypropylene fiber by mass at a temperature of 20 °C to cope with the changeable environmental conditions on the Moon. After curing under a simulated lunar environment, the 72-h flexural and compressive strengths of the geopolymer specimens reach 4.1 and 48.1 MPa, respectively, which are promising considering that the acceleration of gravity on the Moon is 1/6 of that on the Earth.

Destructive and non-destructive testing of potential lunar polymer concrete for future lunar habitable infrastructure

The data gathered from the Apollo missions has provided humanity with incredible amounts of new insight into the lunar environmental conditions that were unknown prior to the on-site exploration. Even with the extensive amounts of data obtained from those missions, there still exists a significant knowledge gap that requires additional instrumentation to be sent to the lunar surface. The knowledge gap is also associated with the future construction material to be used for the lunar infrastructure. Even though numerous research studies are recommending a variety of lunar habitat designs, not a lot of attention was given to the material properties to be used for the construction. Nine categories of potential materials for lunar infrastructure were identified in this research, with polymer concrete presenting the most feasible approach for the initial infrastructure. Destructive and non-destructive tests were done on different percentages of binder material to obtain the initial material properties that include compressive strength, tensile strength, and Young’s modulus of elasticity for compression and tension. The destructive testing included compressive testing of cubes and tensile testing of dog bones. The non-destructive testing used the cross-correlation method to estimate the longitudinal and shear travel time, and together with ultrasonic tests, Young’s modulus was estimated for both compressive and tensile stresses. The 18% content of the binder material has shown the most promising results, having the highest compressive strength. The 24% content of the binder material has shown the highest tensile strength but indicated brittle behavior that would not be convenient for the lunar infrastructure. Additionally, non-destructive test results have shown an excellent correlation with the destructive test results, indicating feasibility for future material quality inspection and evaluation.

An Analysis of the Requirements for a Sustainable Lunar Transportation System to Enable Initial DIANA Infrastructure

The Dedicated Infrastructure and Architecture for Near-Earth Astronautics (DIANA) is a design concept for a self-sustainable lunar village near the de Gerlache crater, on the lunar South Pole, comprising tourists and astronauts alike. The village will be permanently inhabited and will exploit future technologies to achieve independence from a majority of Earth resupply missions. Execution of the initial construction phase of the DIANA infrastructure depends primarily on the persistent supply of in-situ construction material, regolith. Lunar raw materials also primarily contribute to the life support systems (LSS) and the radiation protection for the inhabited modules. To enable ISRU, resources need to be transported using diverse locomotion systems on the unexplored lunar terrain. A self-sustainable lunar base requires to be built on an ecosystem that facilitates continuous transportation of materials, humans (astronauts and tourists) and robotic systems. This paper focuses on a detailed comprehension of the design, feasibility, and economic requirements of a transportation ecosystem concept explicitly dedicated to the establishment and development of the DIANA lunar village. The mission objectives and top level requirements pertaining to the individual transportation systems will be derived from the detected necessities that are defined for alternative transportation technologies that efficiently provide large amounts of lunar raw material for the construction of lunar infrastructure as well as water ice from the de Gerlache Crater, which shall primarily contribute to the LSS and the production of rocket fuel. While transporting humans, factors such as time, comfort, and risk mitigation play a major role, and are therefore, discussed thoroughly within the framework of this study. Using this study as the principal foundation, a phase 0/A design study illustrating a novel transportation infrastructure concept based on magnetic levitation technology would be developed for efficient transportation of resources and people across the lunar surface. This transportation concept shall be sustainably manufactured using the abundant lunar resources to minimize costs and resupply missions in the long term to pave the way for an independent lunar village.

Analysis of Small Modular Nuclear Reactor Construction on the Moon

The current goals of lunar exploration include the return of humans to the Moon for scientific activities and the ability to implement lunar in-situ resource utilization (ISRU) for propellant production and construction. Both goals will consume power and one option to meet these power requirements are small nuclear reactors (Kilopower or Pylon). Launching these might not be beneficial in the future as the lunar infrastructure develops and the power requirements grow. The possibility of lunar independence from Earth in terms of ISRU must be considered. This paper discusses the materials used in each nuclear reactor including the fuel, reflector, working fluid, etc. along with lunar abundancy of each element used in these materials. Since no lunar ore mining or material production concepts were found, a review of Earth-based mining and production methods for each material were described. As a result, furnaces, mills/crushers, and fluidized bed reactors can be utilized for various processes in material production. Other processes including leaching, flotation, etc. will need their own machines. In the future, designing multifunctional furnaces and ball mills or crushers can be considered since this will simplify the lunar infrastructure and can be advantageous in the long run decreasing Earth dependency and cost. Keywords: Lunar Resource Utilization, Fission Surface Power, Material Production

Matrix transformation of lunar regolith and its use as a feedstock for additive manufacturing

Building a sustainable human habitat on the Moon requires advances in excavation, paving, and additive manufacturing to construct landing pads, surface transportation arteries, resilient shelters, and scientific outposts. Construction of infrastructure elements on the lunar surface necessitates exploration of the interfacial reactivity of locally sourced regolith and the adaptation of Earth-based construction techniques. Various crosslinking frameworks and sintering methods have been proposed as a means of consolidating lunar regolith into load-bearing structures but each have challenges related to incomplete understanding of reaction chemistry, excessive thermal budgets, and lack of universal applicability to different mineral components of regolith. We describe here a versatile experimental and computational study of the consolidation of a regolith simulant through formation of siloxane networks enmeshing mineral particles by surface dissolution-precipitation and polycondensation reactions. Furthermore, by tailoring the rheological properties of the formulation an additive manufacturing feedstock can be developed for the construction of lunar infrastructure.

Introduction to the concept of modular blocks for lunar infrastructure

With the major progress of the Artemis program, and the development of NASA's largest rocket since the Apollo era capable of interplanetary travel, Americans are closer than ever to reaching back for the Moon, but this time with the intent of establishing a constant human presence. This vision is further strengthened by the rise of the private rocket sector with SpaceX, RocketLab, Relativity Space, Blue Origin, etc. The establishment of the lunar infrastructure will be a stepping-stone towards reaching for a farther destination, Mars. This paper presents a novel idea of lunar infrastructure construction, with a focus on habitation modules, based on the recently published work by the authors, focusing on the preliminary trade study of various concepts of lunar habitats. The modular blocks are introduced, representing the main building components for any lunar infrastructure. The modular blocks for habitat structures are designed as hollow bricks, optimized in a way that requires the least amount of construction material while implementing 3D printing technologies and minimizing the on-site human construction and assembly. Furthermore, different constructability techniques are presented, together with the initial stages of their development and materials which can be used for their manufacturing. Future work will encompass material properties, a more detailed explanation of manufacturing, global design, and structural analyses.

Exploration of the Moon by Automatic Spacecraft

Problems of the study and exploration of the Moon, which is of paramount interest for cosmogony, planetology, and Earth sciences in the context of a comprehensive study of the Solar System, are discussed. A historical review of lunar exploration is given, a fundamental contribution to which was made by the Soviet lunar program, carried out with the help of automatic spacecraft in the first decades of the space age. The review is timed to coincide with the revival of lunar exploration within the framework of the Russian national space program. The current state of knowledge about the Moon is considered—first of all, key questions about its origin and early evolution. This is of paramount importance for the reconstruction of the main processes of formation of the entire family of bodies in the Solar System, including the early history of the Earth, as well as the reasons for the various evolutionary paths of the Earth and the terrestrial planets. At the present stage, exploration of the Moon as a strategic foothold on the path of human space exploration and the creation of elements of the future lunar infrastructure using local natural resources in the potentially most demanded polar regions are urgent. The South Pole is the target of the Russian Luna-25 and Luna-27 missions, with an extensive science program that aims to start a multipurpose program with the efficient use of new-generation robotics. This program predates Russian plans for manned flights to the Moon.

Business Case Study for the Cycler: A Circumlunar Vehicle for Development of Space Tourism and Lunar Infrastructure by 2030

Cislunar space tourism is still a futuristic concept. However, the thrill and innovation that it offers has the potential to attract the attention of High-Net-Worth Individuals. As a result, developing regular tourist-focused cislunar transportation could be an opportunity for space entrepreneurs. Moreover, once established, cyclic lunar transportation might be a factor that could improve lunar business and infrastructure such as those considered for Moon Village. Today, the commercial development of cislunar vehicles is limited by costs and long duration research and development programs, while, the commercial benefits of a reliable transportation system of crew, tools, materials, and supplies are not fully understood. Consequently, the authors present the commercial viability of a cislunar space tourism vehicle utilizing the cycler concept. This article presents a business case for such a cislunar transportation vehicle and a related portfolio of services that might be realized by 2030. The business case expands previous studies on the Cycler concept proposed by Bombardier, Farr, and Peraldi in 2016. The commercial viability of this cislunar vehicle offers the opportunity for international collaboration as well as the potential for providing access to spaceflights for the space emerging nations. The cislunar space tourism Cycler is envisaged as a modular vehicle that will orbit the Earth and the Moon on a free return trajectory in a 7-day crewed journey (based on a study by Genova and Aldrin). The modular structure provides comfortable to premium travel conditions for 8 paying customers and 3 crew members as well as transporting goods using a cargo unit and a dedicated module to conduct scientific experiments. The article proposes a vehicle architecture using available components with the current Technical Readiness Levels of 6 or higher. This approach identifies technology gaps that need to be addressed to develop cislunar tourism and transportation and demonstrates the limited number of nations that are currently involved in developing these components. Furthermore, the article introduces a risk assessment of the envisaged civil cislunar transportation system, a dedicated financial modeling tool together with potential approach for financing the system through International public–private partnerships.

Technical evaluation of additive manufacturing technologies for in-situ fabrication with lunar regolith

In-Situ Fabrication and Repair can significantly reduce the construction cost of a permanent Moon base by using additive manufacturing (AM) and exploiting local resources instead of bringing all the required materials from Earth. In this article, we evaluate alternative additive manufacturing technologies for building a lunar base and maintaining it across its lifecycle. We compare alternative 3D-printing techniques, already tested for manufacturing with simulants of lunar regolith, using energy, Earth-deliverables consumption, and compressive strength of the produced samples as figures of merit. Based on our analysis, we conclude that Cement Contour Crafting and Stereo-lithography AM techniques are the most promising solutions for the construction of outdoor lunar infrastructure and small precise parts and instruments, respectively.

Deployment Method and Optimal Placement of Surface Beacon Navigation System for Co-located Lunar Landings

Lunar Space exploration is currently accelerating, and manned and unmanned missions to the Moon are planned by several space agencies and private companies in the coming 5–10 years. The construction of the Lunar Orbital Platform Gateway (LOP-G) and plans to establish a more permanent human presence on the Lunar surface will increase the landing frequency and require the capability to safely soft-land successive missions in near proximity to each other. The lunar South Pole is one of the preferred locations for surface exploration due to the discovery of volatiles in the permanently shadowed craters at the poles. However, landing on the lunar South Pole of the Moon is challenging due to the illumination and loss of Earth line-of-sight conditions combined with complex topography. The increased interest in co-located lunar landings concurrent with construction of lunar infrastructure and a challenging landing area warrants new approaches in navigation technology.In this paper we present a concept for a system of radio beacons installed around the Shackleton crater rim “SR1” landing site on the lunar South Pole. We present considerations for optimal placement of the radio beacons based on the specific landing site topography and quantify our finding with dilution of precision (DOP) calculations. We present a novel method for deploying the radio beacons as penetrators with embedded thermoelectric generators (TEGs) for autonomous power generation. We present findings on beacon survivability, penetration depth, spin-stabilization of the penetrators and maximal theoretical power generation.

GENERAL METHODOLOGICAL APPROACHES, PROVISIONS AND PRINCIPLES OF CREATING THE HOUSING MODULE LUNAR BASE

Problem statement. Today, the world's leading researchers are working on the creation of objects on the surface of the Moon. One of the urgent tasks is to develop living modules that provide the necessary protection for the crew of the lunar missions. Analysis of existing research has shown that in order to support long-term surface missions, the lunar infrastructure must provide the necessary functionality of the housing base, such as extraction and processing of raw materials, construction, construction of buildings and structures, life support. Purpose of the article. Analysis of the current state of scientific and applied problems and setting goals and objectives of the further study. The subject of the study is to establish the patterns of lunar bases design and operation in the human civilization interests. Conclusions. The solution of the objectives of the study using the proposed systematic approach of creating an innovative dual-use product, namely, the development of building materials, products and structures by additive technologies (3D-printing) and recommendations for their production will allow the creation of high-security building projects that can be used for development of the Moon and the Earth, which will contribute to the development of domestic territorial and industrial infrastructure. The earth and lunar rocks are extremely similar, so the earth rock processing technologies can be applied to the lunar rocks. The development of the residential module and the structures design must take into account the complete life cycle of the lunar base facilities, as well as the physiological needs of the lunar base crew.

Lunar soil-analogue VI-75 for large-scale experiments

At the present stage of the Moon study and exploration, the lunar soil model for large-scale field experiments is one of the most relevant for drop tests of lunar landing spacecraft, to develop test sites for testing self-propelled or manned lunar rovers, for designing and testing elements of lunar infrastructure, and so on. We analyzed the basic requirements for raw materials and lunar soil models for large-scale field experimental studies. The main physical and mechanical properties of the lunar soil for the verification of soil-analogues and the selection of raw materials for modeling mixtures are considered. We present the method of developing of the lunar soil-analogue, the measured physical and mechanical properties of the soil-analogues are given, including the deformation characteristics, and the technology of laying the soil-analogue in the test bench is considered. It is shown that our lunar soil analogue VI-75 fully imitates physical and mechanical properties of an original lunar soil at loose and compact state. Experiments confirmed its high operational properties and qualities.