Lunar Exploration Program Research Articles

Primary scientific results of Chang’E-1 lunar mission

The strategic plan for the development of the unmanned Chinese Lunar Exploration Program is characterized by three distinct stages: “orbiting around”, “landing on” and “returning from” the Moon. The first Chinese lunar probe, Chang’E-1, which was successfully launched on October 24th, 2007 at Xichang Satellite Launch Center, and guided to crash on the Moon on March 1st, 2009, at 52.36°E, 1.50°S, in the north of Mare Fecunditatis, is the first step towards the “orbiting around” stage. The Chang’E-1 mission lasted 495 days, exceeding the expected life-span by about four months. A total of 1.37 TB raw data was received from Chang’E-1. It was then processed into 4 TB scientific data products at various levels. Many scientific results have been obtained by analyzing these data, including especially the “global lunar image from the first Chinese lunar exploration mission”. All scientific goals of Chang’E-1 have been achieved. It provides much useful materials for further advances of lunar sciences and planetary chemistry. Meanwhile, these results will serve as a firm basis for future Chinese lunar missions.

The global image of the Moon obtained by the Chang’E-1: Data processing and lunar cartography

The global lunar image of the first phase of Chinese Lunar Exploration Program is the first image that covered all over the surface of the Moon. It will serve as a critical foundation for succeeding exploration and scientific research. In this paper, the acquisition, characteristics, and data quality of Chang’E-1 CCD image data are described in detail. Also described are the methodology and procedure of data processing. According to rule of planetary cartography, the image data have been processed, geometrically corrected, and then mosaicked and merged in a scale of 1:2.5 million. The results of data processing and charting show that the image data of Chang’E-1 CCD and their geometric precision meet the demand of charting a map in the scale of 1:2.5 million. The relative geometric positioning precision of the global image is better than 240 m, and the absolute geometric positioning precision is slightly better than that of the ULCN2005 and Clementine lunar basemap (V2.0). The plane positioning precision is approximately 100-1500 m. This global image proves to be the best global image of the Moon so far in terms of space coverage, image quality, and positioning precision.

Lunar Plant Biology—A Review of the Apollo Era

Recent plans for human return to the Moon have significantly elevated scientific interest in the lunar environment with emphasis on the science to be done in preparation for the return and while on the lunar surface. Since the return to the Moon is envisioned as a dedicated and potentially longer-term commitment to lunar exploration, questions of the lunar environment and particularly its impact on biology and biological systems have become a significant part of the lunar science discussion. Plants are integral to the discussion of biology on the Moon. Plants are envisioned as important components of advanced habitats and fundamental components of advanced life-support systems. Moreover, plants are sophisticated multicellular eukaryotic life-forms with highly orchestrated developmental processes, well-characterized signal transduction pathways, and exceedingly fine-tuned responses to their environments. Therefore, plants represent key test organisms for understanding the biological impact of the lunar environment on terrestrial life-forms. Indeed, plants were among the initial and primary organisms that were exposed to returned lunar regolith from the Apollo lunar missions. This review discusses the original experiments involving plants in association with the Apollo samples, with the intent of understanding those studies within the context of the first lunar exploration program and drawing from those experiments the data to inform the studies critical within the next lunar exploration science agenda.

Lunar Exploration Neutron Detector for the NASA Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter

The design of the Lunar Exploration Neutron Detector (LEND) experiment is presented, which was optimized to address several of the primary measurement requirements of NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO): high spatial resolution hydrogen mapping of the Moon’s upper-most surface, identification of putative deposits of appreciable near-surface water ice in the Moon’s polar cold traps, and characterization of the human-relevant space radiation environment in lunar orbit. A comprehensive program of LEND instrument physical calibrations is discussed and the baseline scenario of LEND observations from the primary LRO lunar orbit is presented. LEND data products will be useful for determining the next stages of the emerging global lunar exploration program, and they will facilitate the study of the physics of hydrogen implantation and diffusion in the regolith, test the presence of water ice deposits in lunar cold polar traps, and investigate the role of neutrons within the radiation environment of the shallow lunar surface.

Absolute calibration of the Chang’E-1 IIM camera and its preliminary application

The interference imaging spectroradiometer (IIM) onboard the first lunar satellite of China “Chang’E-1” can now provide approximately global high spectral and spatial resolution reflectance spectra of the Moon. It is the essential instrument with which to accomplish one of the four missions of the first lunar satellite of China. As the current data provided by the Lunar Exploration Program Center and National Astronomical Observatories (NAOC) are not reflectance and the sensor response is inhomogeneous in the line direction, users can not use the current data directly. Moreover, due to the narrow band range, IIM data cannot cover the absorption peak of the mafic minerals of the Moon completely, which limits its ability for identifying minerals. The main objective of this study is to describe the methods for absolute calibration, correction and acquiring the absorption center of minerals for IIM data. The results from our study show that in the space domain the sensor response decreases toward the left, and in the spectral domain the response of the longer bands is more inhomogeneous than that of the shorter bands. After the calibration and correction, the reflectance of IIM matches the earth-based telescopic spectra well, which suggests the possible use of the processed data in the geological research. A high correlation was found between the absorption center and the wavelength at which the first derivative equals 0, i.e., the so-called Stagnation Point in the mathematical sense. In the end, we show a preliminary applied study of the two craters with diameter larger than 35 km using the calibrated data. The spectra of IIM data show that the lunar crust has compositional diversity within the km scale. Pure anorthosite may be found on the wall and floor of the Aristarchus crater with the map of absorption center, which indicates that anorthosite is ubiquitously present within the lunar crust. IIM, with its capacity to acquire lunar composition at the regional and global scale, will contribute to the research of lunar origin and evolution.

Does the lunar regolith contain secrets of the Solar System? Using the Moon as a cosmic witness plate

AbstractThe lunar regolith (soil) has recorded a history of the early Moon, the Earth, and the entire solar system. A major goal of the developing lunar exploration program should be to find and play back existing fragments of that tape. By playing back the lunar tape, we can uncover a record of planetary bombardment, as well as solar and stellar variability. The Moon can tell us much about our place in the solar system and in the Universe. The lunar regolith has likely recorded the original meteoritic bombardment of Earth and Moon, a violent cataclysm that may have peaked around 4 GY, and the less intense bombardment occurring since that time. Decrease in bombardment allowed life to develop on Earth. This impact history is preserved as megaregolith layers, ejecta layers, impact melt rocks, and ancient impact breccias. The impact history for the Earth and Moon possibly had profound effects on the origin and development of life. Life may have arrived via meteorite transport from a more quiet body, such as Mars. The solar system may have experienced bursts of severe radiation from the Sun, other stars or from unknown sources. The lunar regolith has also recorded a radiation history in the form of implanted and trapped solar wind and solar flare materials and radiation damage. The Moon can be considered as a giant tape recorder containing the history of the solar system. Lunar soil generated by small impacts will be found sandwiched between layers of basalt or pyroclastic deposits. This filling constitutes a buried time capsule that is likely to contain well-preserved ancient regolith. Study of such samples will show us how the solar system has evolved and changed over time. The lunar recording can provide detailed snapshots of specific portions of solar and stellar variability.

Analysis: Asian moon

Next time you look up at the Moon, consider the fact that three spacecraft in orbit around it were designed and built, not in Europe or the US, but in Asia. When India's Chandrayaan-1 slipped into lunar orbit on 8 November, it joined Japan's Kaguya and China's Chang'e-1, launched in September and October 2007, respectively. This is not to suggest that NASA and the European Space Agency are no longer involved in lunar exploration. Following the US President's call for America to return astronauts to the Moon, there has been significant increase in activity. For example, NASA's next unmanned lunar mission the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) is expected to launch in April 2009 on a mission to provide a detailed map of the Moon for future manned missions. A secondary payload, the Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite, is intended to excavate the permanently dark floor of one of the Moon's polar craters with two heavy impactors... to test the theory that ancient ice lies buried there. Meanwhile, the remains of Europe's first Moon probe, SMART-1, lie somewhere on the volcanic plain known as the 'Lake of Excellence', following a successful three-year mission and removal from lunar orbit in September 2006. However, until LRO arrives, lunar orbit is in the loosest sense solely Asian territory. This may come as a surprise to those whose knowledge of national space programmes is gleaned only from the media, but the leading Asian space nations have been active space powers since the 1970s. Japan and China saw their first Earth-orbiting satellites launched within a few months of each other, in February and April 1970, followed by India in April 1975. The juxtaposition of the current lunar missions has led to speculation regarding an 'Asian space race', a sort of extraterrestrial projection of economic competitiveness, but it is just as likely to be happy coincidence. Japan launched its first lunar orbiter, Hiten, as long ago as 1990. The mothership even injected a tiny sub-satellite, Hagoromo, into lunar orbit before completing its mission and conducting a de-orbit manoeuvre into the crater Furnerius. So if there was such thing as an Asian Moon race, Japan won it years ago. While China's agenda is almost certainly a political one, its contention is more likely with the West and its aims far greater than orbiting a box of electronics around the The progress of China's efforts in manned spaceflighthaving graduated from first solo-flight to three-man-crew and spacewalk in five years is impressive, but its published intentions to conduct a space station mission by 2011 suggest a move towards longer-duration flights. From there, as space aficionados delight in saying, it's only three days to the Moon. According to Luo Ge, vice administrator of the China National Space Administration, the nation has an ambitious lunar exploration programme that will see an automated rover on the Moon by 2012 and a sample return mission in 2017. Putting the manned and unmanned capabilities together, it is difficult to avoid the conclusion that China aims to send its first astronauts to the Moon in the same timeframe as America (around 2020). Indeed, even NASA administrator Mike Griffin has admitted that the next man or woman on the Moon is as likely to be Chinese as American. Although his comments are probably aimed at Congress in the hope of a budget increase, and possibly designed to create an upsurge of national pride among the American public, he is renowned for 'telling it like it is'. So America should be prepared to take second place. India, meanwhile, has already proposed its own manned spaceflight programme, with an ultimate goal (however unsubstantiated) of landing an Indian on the This 'talking up' of space capabilities, and the reality of the Chandrayaan-1 mission, comes as no surprise to long-term space watchers, but has caused a degree of unrest in India. Since the nation's first satellite, Aryabhata, was launched in 1975, India has been a staunch defender of its pragmatic stance in space spending. The majority of its space budget has been allocated to communications and remote sensing satellites, which provide services of benefit to its people. Detractors are now asking how, when so many Indians live in poverty, the government can justify sending spacecraft, let alone astronauts, to the This attitude is also to be expected, especially in a democracy, as it mirrors a segment of opinion in most of the space-faring nations.However, as India's population becomes more broadly educated and increasingly aspirational, it is equally easy to find those who are proud that their nation is making its mark on the world (and those beyond). Indeed, India's space agency is banking on the views of the new literati holding sway, and is already preparing Chandrayaan-2.

CAS-1 lunar soil simulant

Lunar soil simulant is a geochemical reproduction of lunar regolith, and is needed for lunar science and engineering researches. This paper describes a new lunar soil simulant, CAS-1, prepared by the Chinese Academy of Sciences, to support lunar orbiter, soft-landing mission and sample return missions of China’s Lunar Exploration Program, which is scheduled for 2004–2020. Such simulants should match the samples returned from the Moon, all collected from the lunar regolith rather than outcrops. The average mineral and chemical composition of lunar soil sample returned from the Apollo 14 mission, which landed on the Fra Mauro Formation, is chosen as the model for the CAS-1 simulant. Source material for this simulant was a low-Ti basaltic scoria dated at 1600 years from the late Quaternary volcanic area in the Changbai Mountains of northeast China. The main minerals of this rock are pyroxene, olivine, and minor plagioclase, and about 20–40% modal glass. The scoria was analyzed by XRF and found to be chemically similar to Apollo 14 lunar sample 14163. It was crushed in an impact mill with a resulting median particle size 85.9 μm, similar to Apollo soils. Bulk density, shear resistance, complex permittivity, and reflectance spectra were also similar to Apollo 14 soil. We conclude that CAS-1 is an ideal lunar soil simulant for science and engineering research of future lunar exploration program.

SMART-1 highlights and relevant studies on early bombardment and geological processes on rocky planets

We present results from SMART-1 science and technology payload, in the context of the Nobel symposium on ‘Physics of Planetary Systems’. SMART-1 is Europe' first lunar mission (Foing et al 2000 LPSC XXXI #1677 (CDROM); Foing et al 2001 Earth, Moon Planets85–86 523–31; Marini et al 2002 Adv. Space Res.30 1895–900; Racca et al 2001 Earth Moon Planets85–86 379–95, Racca et al 2002 Planet Space Sci.50 1323–37) demonstrating technologies for future science and exploration missions, and providing advances in our understanding of lunar origin and evolution, and general planetary questions. The mission also contributes a step in developing an international program of lunar exploration. The spacecraft, launched on 27 September 2003 as an Ariane 5 Auxiliary passenger to geostationary transfer orbit (GTO), performed a 14-month long cruise using a tiny thrust of electric propulsion alone, reached lunar capture in November 2004, and lunar science orbit in March 2005. SMART-1 carried 7 hardware experiments (Foing et al 2003 Adv. Space Res.31 2323, Foing et al 2005 LPI/LPSC XXXVI 2404 (CDROM)) performing 10 investigations, including 3 remote-sensing instruments, used during the cruise, the mission' nominal six-months and one-year extension in lunar science orbit. Three remote sensing instruments, D-CIXS, SIR and AMIE, have returned data that are relevant to a broad range of lunar studies. The mission provided regional and global x-ray measurements of the Moon, global high-spectral resolution NIR spectrometry, high spatial resolution colour imaging of selected regions. The South Pole-Aitken Basin (SPA) and other impact basins have been prime targets for studies using the SMART-1 suite of instruments. Combined, these should aid a large number of science studies, from bulk crustal composition and theories of lunar origin/evolution, the global and local crustal composition, to the search for cold traps at the lunar poles and the mapping of potential lunar resources. We present here SMART-1 results relevant to the study of the early bombardment and geological processes on rocky planets. Further information and updates on the SMART-1 mission can be found on the ESA Science and Technology web pages, at: http://sci.esa.int/smart-1/.

Global lunar-surface mapping experiment using the Lunar Imager/Spectrometer on SELENE

Abstract The Moon is the nearest celestial body to the Earth. Understanding the Moon is the most important issue confronting geosciences and planetary sciences. Japan will launch the lunar polar orbiter SELENE (Kaguya) (Kato et al., 2007) in 2007 as the first mission of the Japanese long-term lunar exploration program and acquire data for scientific knowledge and possible utilization of the Moon. An optical sensing instrument called the Lunar Imager/Spectrometer (LISM) is loaded on SELENE. The LISM requirements for the SELENE project are intended to provide high-resolution digital imagery and spectroscopic data for the entire lunar surface, acquiring these data for scientific knowledge and possible utilization of the Moon. Actually, LISM was designed to include three specialized sub-instruments: a terrain camera (TC), a multi-band imager (MI), and a spectral profiler (SP). The TC is a high-resolution stereo camera with 10-m spatial resolution from a SELENE nominal altitude of 100 km and a stereo angle of 30° to provide stereo pairs from which digital terrain models (DTMs) with a height resolution of 20 m or better will be produced. The MI is a multi-spectral imager with four and five color bands with 20 m and 60 m spatial resolution in visible and near-infrared ranges, which will provide data to be used to distinguish the geological units in detail. The SP is a line spectral profiler with a 400-m-wide footprint and 300 spectral bands with 6–8 nm spectral resolution in the visible to near-infrared ranges. The SP data will be sufficiently powerful to identify the lunar surface’s mineral composition. Moreover, LISM will provide data with a spatial resolution, signal-to-noise ratio, and covered spectral range superior to that of past Earth-based and spacecraft-based observations. In addition to the hardware instrumentation, we have studied operation plans for global data acquisition within the limited total data volume allotment per day. Results show that the TC and MI can achieve global observations within the restrictions by sharing the TC and MI observation periods, adopting appropriate data compression, and executing necessary SELENE orbital plane change operations to ensure global coverage by MI. Pre-launch operation planning has resulted in possible global TC high-contrast imagery, TC stereoscopic imagery, and MI 9-band imagery in one nominal mission period. The SP will also acquire spectral line profiling data for nearly the entire lunar surface. The east-west interval of the SP strip data will be 3–4 km at the equator by the end of the mission and shorter at higher latitudes. We have proposed execution of SELENE roll cant operations three times during the nominal mission period to execute calibration site observations, and have reached agreement on this matter with the SELENE project. We present LISM global surface mapping experiments for instrumentation and operation plans. The ground processing systems and the data release plan for LISM data are discussed briefly.

Technical Feasibility and Relative Productivity of Alternate NASA Robotic Missions to a Lunar Dark Crater

Two concepts for large-scale, complex, robotic missions to search for frozen water at the lunar south pole are systematically analyzed to determine their relative productivity and investment requirements. A concurrent design team, a technology-assessment tool, and a sensitivity model are integrated to search a large, complex trade space. Performance goals for a broad portfolio of missions comprising NASA's lunar exploration program are optimized subject to budget, workforce, and other nontechnical constraints. Explicit distinction is made between enabling and enhancing technologies. Uncertainties and dependencies are included within the optimization framework. Given the constraints used in this analysis, the study determines that the longer mission [using a radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG)] would return 14 times the value of the shorter mission (using a methanol-oxygen fuel cell) for roughly a 17% increase in cost, and would be enabled with the recommended temporal technology portfolio. To assess the robustness of the investment recommendations, other potential fuel-cell chemistries are evaluated along with potential improvements in rover speed and autonomy, and a reduced activity profile. Results indicate that a lithium-oxygen fuel cell would enable the highest level of productivity among the three fuel cells studied, though not as high as that permitted by an RTG. For the shorter duration mission concepts, it was found that productivity could be enhanced by reducing the number of activities from the baseline 15 to 4, thereby permitting time for each activity to be more fully accomplished.

Very low frequency interferometry for the Chang’E-2 project

Very low frequency interferometry among two astronomical experiments has been proposed and accepted for further study for the second phase of China’s lunar exploration programme (the Chang’E Programme), which is envisaged to operate a lander and a rover on the surface of the moon. This experiment is an interferometer experiment in the very low frequency (VLF, f < 15 MHz) regime of radio frequencies with at least degree-level angular resolution. The goals include observing solar storm activities, Coronal Mass Ejections, Auroral Kilometric Radiation, and planetary radiation in the solar system, studying the origin of Cosmic Rays, spectral properties of pulsars, surveying ionized hydrogen in the Galaxy, and exploring coherent radio emissions.

Optimized Low-Thrust Orbit Transfer for Space Tugs

Introduction Recent advances in low-cost, commercial launch systems predict rapid insertion of relatively large payloads into Low Earth Orbit (LEO). At the same time, extensive work performed on radiation hardening of solar cells—specifically GaAs, InP and InGaP/GaAs cells—has permitted repeated transfers through the Van Allen belt with minimal loss of conversion efficiency. 1 The combined impact of these two technological advances suggests that a market for an in-space transportation system capable of ferrying payloads from LEO to GEO and beyond is not only possible, but desirable. The space tug configuration demonstrates a viable candidate for an Earth-Moon cargo vehicle system satisfying NASA’s Vision for Space Exploration. Establishment of permanent outposts on the Moon will require the transfer of large quantities of cargo to the Moon’s surface at low cost. A high power, reusable, solar electric propulsion system optimized for both transfer mass and transfer time is capable of delivering high-tonnage cargo per year to the surface of the Moon. The cost saving from both the use of smaller launch vehicles and the reuse of the power and propulsion subsystems makes such a mission system an attractive choice for the Lunar Exploration Program. In this note, the authors apply an optimization technique previously developed by Burton and Wassgren 2 to a reusable electrically-propelled Earth-Moon “space tug” transfer vehicle proposed by Spores et al. 3 Both transfer mass and mission time are optimized, and the results show that significant reductions in the round trip transfer time can be achieved. In addition, either the initial launch mass can be significantly reduced, while keeping the yearly delivered payload constant, or the yearly delivered cargo can be significantly increased by appropriately increasing the available power.

Orbit determination of satellite “Tance 1” with VLBI data

The satellite “Tance 1” of the “Double-Star Program” is the first truly scientific experimentation satellite of China. Its orbit is the farthest so far launched in China, with a geocentric apogee reaching 78 thousand kilometers. The tracking of “Tance 1” and of more distant space targets, such as the lunar exploration craft, can be realized with the VLBI technique of radio astronomy. In order to test and verify the role which the VLBI technique plays in the lunar exploration program of China, Shanghai Astronomical Observatory organized the only 3 tracking stations in China (located at Shanghai, Urumqi and Kunming), to carry out test tracking of “Tance 1,” and used the time delay data obtained to determine the orbit of “Tance 1” over a two-day period, so providing a preliminary assessment of the possibility of VLBI orbit determination. The fitting error of the orbit so obtained is about 5.5 m in the time delay and about 2 cm/s in the delay rate (this for checking only), much better than is provided by the preliminary orbit (used merely for ensuring tracking) in which the corresponding figures are around 2 km and 15 cm/s. Further, if the orbit is determined by using both the time delay and time delay rate data (with weights according to their internal accuracies), then the residuals are 5.5 m in the time delay and 2 cm/s in the delay rate. For an appreciation of the true accuracy of the VLBI orbit determination, we used simulation data (of the observed two-day VLBI data) and found the results depended greatly on the error in the dynamic model of the satellite which, however, is difficult to assess, while the formal residuals are of the order of 1 kin in the delay and of cm/s in the delay rate. The simulation computation also indicates that a joint determination using both VLBI and USB data will have an improved accuracy.

SMART-1 mission to the Moon: Status, first results and goals

We present the first results from SMART-1’s science and technology payload. SMART-1 is Europe’s first lunar mission and will provide some significant advances to many issues currently active in lunar science, such as our understanding of lunar origin and evolution. The mission also contributes a step in developing an international program of lunar exploration. The spacecraft was launched on 27 September 2003 on an Ariane 5, as an auxiliary passenger to Geostationary Transfer Orbit (GTO), performed a 14-month long cruise using the tiny thrust of electric propulsion alone, reached lunar capture in November 2004, and lunar science orbit in March 2005. SMART-1 carries seven hardware experiments (performing 10 investigations, including three remote sensing instruments, used during the cruise, the mission’s nominal six months and one year extension in lunar science orbit). The remote sensing instruments will contribute to key planetary scientific questions related to theories of lunar origin and evolution, the global and local crustal composition, the search for cold traps at the lunar poles and the mapping of potential lunar resources. [Display omitted]

Space operation system for Chang’E program and its capability evaluation

Space operation for China’s first lunar exploration program, Chang’E will be provided by the S-band aerospace Telemetry, Tracking and Command (TT&C) network designed for China’s manned space program. This is undoubtedly a great challenge to the ground TT&C system. The largest antennas of China’s S-band aerospace TT&C network has an aperture of only 12 m. A series of technical measures have been taken into the designing of the spacecraft-ground TT&C system to ensure that such antennas can communicate with Chang’E-1 lunar probe 400,000 km away. These include installation of high-gain directional antennae and medium-gain omni-directional antennae for the probe, adding channel encoding to the downlink channel, using both high and low data rates for information transmission and upgrade and design of ground equipment terminals. Among them, the omni-directional antenna will operate in the earth-ground transfer orbit phase and the directional antenna will operate in the lunar orbit phase. These measures satisfy the spacecraft-ground link and program design requirements.To provide accurate navigation for the probe during its Earth-Moon flight and initial lunar orbiting flight, China’s VLBI system designed for astronomical observations, will also be used besides the ranging and range rate measurement capabilities of the S-band TT&C network. The purpose is to provide 100 m accuracy in position determination during lunar orbit. This paper describes the system design, technical challenges, solutions and capability evaluation of space operation for Chang’E-1.

SMART-1 after lunar capture: First results and perspectives

SMART-1 is a technology demonstration mission for deep space solar electrical propulsion and technologies for the future. SMART-1 is Europe’s first lunar mission and will contribute to developing an international program of lunar exploration. The spacecraft was launched on 27th September 2003, as an auxiliary passenger to GTO on Ariane 5, to reach the Moon after a 15-month cruise, with lunar capture on 15th November 2004, just a week before the International Lunar Conference in Udaipur. SMART-1 carries seven experiments, including three remote sensing instruments used during the mission’s nominal six months and one year extension in lunar science orbit. These instruments will contribute to key planetary scientific questions, related to theories of lunar origin and evolution, the global and local crustal composition, the search for cold traps at the lunar poles and the mapping of potential lunar resources

Luna-Glob project in the context of the past and present lunar exploration in Russia

The Russian Luna-Glob project has been conceived with a view to understand the origin of the Earth-Moon system. The objectives and main features of the Luna-Glob mission, which will mainly study the internal structure of the Moon by seismic instruments, are described in the context of the past and current program of lunar exploration in Russia.

New moon from an old hand

The outcome of the Apollo lunar exploration program 1969–1974 was a model of lunar petrogenesis which ignored the probability of selective volatilisation of gases and alkalis from fire-fountaining lunar basalts. It overlooked the fact that the average compositions of the erupted basalts were those of plagioclase-saturated and low-pressure cotectic liquids on eruption, clearly indicating that they were not primary magmas. The basalts may have undergone evolution by gabbro fractionation within the lunar crust, perhaps in large lava lakes now solidified as the lunar maria. The existing model involving a global magma ocean and plagioclase flotation to form the lunar crust arises solely from the incorrect assumption that the basalts are primary magmas. The plagioclase flotation hypothesis requires the presence of a significant positive europium anomaly in the lunar highland crust, and was founded upon its alleged presence. However, that positive anomaly is neither established by the original data set nor by the much broader current data set. Critical observations, and experiments which will advance the debate are suggested, and alternative interpretations outlined.

SMART-1 mission to the moon: Technology and science goals

SMART-1 is a technology demonstration mission for deep space solar electrical propulsion and Technologies for the Future. SMART-1 will be Europe's first lunar mission and will contribute to developing an international program of lunar exploration. The spacecraft has been readied in April 2003 for a launch in summer 2003, as an auxiliary passenger to GTO on Ariane 5, to reach the Moon after 15 month's cruise. SMART-1 will carry six experiments, including three remote sensing instruments that will be used during the mission's nominal six months in lunar orbit. These instruments will contribute to key planetary scientific questions, related to theories of lunar origin and evolution, the global and local crustal composition, the search for cold traps at the lunar poles and the mapping of potential lunar resources.