Lumpy Skin Disease Research Articles

Vaccination against nodular dermatitis in cattle as an indirect cause of abortions

Lumpy skin disease was first found in the Russian Federation in 2015. Since 2016, vaccination against lumpy skin disease has been mandatory for cattle of all age groups. In this regard, studying the effect of vaccination against lumpy skin disease on the reproductive ability of cows is relevant. One of the reasons for the decrease in the reproductive ability of cows is abortions at different stages of pregnancy. Statistical processing of abortions in Holstein cows for 2019-2022 was carried out. The first experimental group included animals, in which abortions were diagnosed in the period from the first to the sixth month after vaccination against lumpy skin disease; the second group – from the seventh to the twelfth month after vaccination. The total number of abortions during the reference period was 436. In the first experimental group, 232 abortions were diagnosed or 53.2% of all abortions, which was 6.4% more than in the second experimental group. A comparative assessment of the percentage of abortions at different stages of pregnancy indicated that in the first experimental group, abortions with a pregnancy period of less than 70 days accounted for 52.1%, which was 2.8% less than in the second experimental group, and abortions in late stages, correspondingly more by 2.8%. Thus, vaccination against lumpy skin disease may be one of the indirect causes of abortions in cows.

Isolation of Lumpy Skin Disease Virus from Andhra Pradesh

Isolation of Lumpy Skin Disease Virus from Andhra Pradesh

Novel strategy for Poxviridae prevention: Thermostable combined subunit vaccine patch with intense immune response

Poxviruses gained international attention due to the sharp rise in monkeypox cases in recent years, highlighting the urgent need for the development of a secure and reliable vaccine. This study involved the development of an innovative combined subunit vaccine (CSV) targeting poxviruses, with lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) serving as the model virus. To this end, the potential sites for poxvirus vaccines were fully evaluated to develop and purify four recombinant proteins. These proteins were then successfully delivered to the dermis in a mouse model by utilizing dissolvable microneedle patches (DMPs). This approach simplified the vaccination procedure and significantly mitigated the associated risk. CSV-loaded DMPs contained four recombinant proteins and a novel adjuvant, CpG, which allowed DMPs to elicit the same intensity of humoral and cellular immunity as subcutaneous injection. Following immunization with SC and DMP, the mice exhibited notable levels of neutralizing antibodies, albeit at a low concentration. It is noteworthy that the CSV loaded into DMPs remained stable for at least 4 months at room temperature, effectively addressing the storage and transportation challenges. Based on the study findings, CSV-loaded DMPs are expected to be utilized worldwide as an innovative technique for poxvirus inoculation, especially in underdeveloped regions. This novel strategy is crucial for the development of future poxvirus vaccines.

Sheep pox and lumpy skin disease– A report on Nellore jodipi sheep and Punganur cattle

Sheep pox and lumpy skin diseases are economically significant and contagious viral diseases reported in Nellore Jodipi sheep and Punganur cattle, respectively, caused by the genus Capripoxvirus (CaPV) of the family Poxviridae. The present cases were observed at Livestock Research Station, Palamaner, Chittoor (dt). This disease poses challenges to food production and distribution, affecting rural livelihoods. Transmission occurs mainly by direct or indirect contact with infected animals. They cause high morbidity and mortality, and additionally, the mortality rate can approach 100% in susceptible animals. Diagnosis largely relies on clinical symptoms, confirmed by laboratory testing using real-time PCR, electron microscopy, virus isolation, serology, and histology. Control and eradication of sheep pox virus (SPPV) and lumpy skin disease (LSDV) depend on timely recognition of disease eruption, vector control, and movement restriction. Attenuated sheep pox vaccine and live attenuated goat pox vaccine were used to control the Capripoxvirus in Nellore Jodipi and Punganur cattle.

Serological and Community Awareness Study of Lumpy Skin Disease in Different Agro-Ecological Zones of Sidama Regional State, Southern Ethiopia.

The lumpy skin disease (LSD) vaccination status and epidemiological distribution remain unknown in some parts of Ethiopia, including the Sidama regional state. In this study, a serological survey of LSD was performed using a specific virus neutralization assay in selected districts of the Sidama regional state representing three agroecological zones from September 2021 to June 2022. Moreover, an assessment of community awareness and LSD vaccine-related problems was conducted using a questionnaire. Our results showed an overall animal and herd level seroprevalence of 40.8% (95%CI = 35.8, 45.8) and 81% (95%CI = 77, 85), respectively. High and low seroprevalence were observed in lowland (48%) and highland (28%) areas, although they were not statistically significant. However, risk factors such as management systems and breeds showed substantial differences in their LSD prevalence. The results obtained through the questionnaire showed that a small portion of respondents (29.2%) know about LSD and vaccinate their cattle (23.3%) against this disease. Only 20.8% of the respondents stated that there was LSD occurrence in their vaccinated cattle. In conclusion, both qualitative and quantitative study results showed the need for intervention in terms of community-based awareness creation about LSD clinical signs and vaccination advantages together with the frequently updated information on LSD prevalence.

Influence of Anthelmintic Treatment on Immune Response and Oxidative Stress in Cattle Vaccinated against Lumpy Skin Disease

Background: Vaccination and deworming are routine programs in cattle health management. However, the anthelmintic’s effectiveness on the immune response in vaccinated cattle is limited. Therefore, this study investigated whether anthelmintic administration affects the oxidative stress and immunity induced by vaccination against lumpy skin disease (LSD) in cattle. Methods: Thirty-seven Thai beef cattle were divided into two groups. Group 1) 19 cattle were vaccinated against LSD with a Neethling LSD virus (LSDV) vaccine as the control group and Group 2) 18 cattle were vaccinated against LSD with a Neethling LSDV vaccine and received albendazole treatment. Then, the intensity of gastrointestinal parasite infestation, level of malondialdehyde, inflammatory cytokines and antibody titer to LSDV were investigated in both groups on day 30 of the experimental period. Result: The results showed that the types and intensity of gastrointestinal parasites were decreased in the anthelmintic-treated group. There were no significant differences in the levels of malondialdehyde, IFN-γ, TNF-α and LSD-specific antibody titers between the control and the anthelmintic treatment group (P greater than 0.05), while the expression level of IL-4 in the anthelmintic treatment group was significantly lower than in the control group (P less than 0.05). Our study indicated that albendazole treatment did not affect oxidative stress and innate and adaptive immunity against LSDV. Moreover, single-dose albendazole therapy led to a reduction in the expression level of IL-4, which is involved in defense against parasites.

An Attenuated Vaccine Virus of the Neethling Lineage Protects Cattle against the Virulent Recombinant Vaccine-like Isolate of the Lumpy Skin Disease Virus Belonging to the Currently Established Cluster 2.5.

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is an emerging transboundary and highly infectious viral disease mainly affecting cattle. The fact that it was initially confined to Africa and then spread beyond its geographical range to other regions, including the Middle East, Turkey, Europe, the Balkans, Russia and Asia, is an indication of the underestimation and neglect of this disease. Vaccination is considered the most effective way to control the spread of LSDV, when combined with other control measures. LSD is now on the rise in Southeast Asia, where the circulating virus belongs to recombinant lineage 2.5. In this study, we evaluated the efficacy of an attenuated LSDV strain belonging to the Neethling cluster 1.1 by challenge with a virulent recombinant vaccine-like LSDV isolate "Mongolia/2021" belonging to cluster 2.5. Some of the vaccinated animals showed an increase in body temperature of 1-1.5 °C above the physiological norm, without clinical signs, local reactions, vaccine-induced viremia or generalization, demonstrating the efficacy and safety of the vaccine strain against a recombinant strain. Furthermore, all the vaccinated animals showed strong immune responses, indicating a high level of immunogenicity. However, the control group challenged with "Mongolia/2021" LSD showed moderate to severe clinical signs seen in an outbreak, with high levels of virus shedding in blood samples and nasal swabs. Overall, the results of the present study demonstrate that the attenuated LSDV Neethling strain vaccine has a promising protective phenotype against the circulating strains, suggesting its potential as an effective tool for the containment and control of LSD in affected countries from Southeast Asia.

Evaluation of longitudinal passive immunity transfer against lumpy skin disease virus in calves by different serological methods

To implement effective lumpy skin disease (LSD) control measures, such as timely vaccination, particularly in calves and serological monitoring, it is necessary to evaluate immune response after vaccination, both in adult cattle and in their calves. The aim of this study was to evaluate passive immunity transfer and duration of maternal antibodies against lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) in calves born to vaccinated cows by two different serological methods. The longitudinal study was carried out on two farms in Serbia where no cases were reported during LSD outbreak in 2016. Fifteen cows on each farm were vaccinated and revaccinated with attenuated vaccine - Neethling strain. A total of 30 cows and 30 calves on both farms were included in the study. Serum samples from cows were collected on calving day and serum samples from their respective calves on days 10, 20, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, 105 and 120 after birth. Colostrum samples were collected only from 15 cows on one farm. In order to determine the presence of antibodies against LSDV a total of 30 cow sera samples, 15 colostrum samples and 270 calf sera samples were examined by commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and modified virus neutralization test (VNT). Overall, the performance of both serological tests was very satisfactory. The results of this longitudinal study showed that persistence of passive immunity in calves is less than 4 months, and that most calves are not protected against LSDV at that age. Since the vaccination is the most important control measure against LSDV, the recommended age of six months for vaccination of calves born to vaccinated cows should be reassessed to achieve the most optimal protection against LSD.

Deciphering the genetic landscape of lumpy skin disease: Unraveling variable virulence through comprehensive genome sequence analysis in India

Lumpy Skin Disease (LSD), a poxvirus disease affecting cattle, emerged in India in 2019 and intensified in 2022, resulting in significant economic losses for dairy farmers. There was unusual shift in mortality and morbidity patterns during the second wave. A comprehensive genetic study conducted, analyzing samples from 2019 to 2022 revealed circulation of two distinct subclades (subclade 1.2a and 1.2b) in India, with the latter showing a different pattern in morbidity and mortality. Notably, the Ankyrin repeats gene-based analysis could differentiate animals with varying clinical scores. Genetic variations were significant, with unique deletions identified, including a 12-nucleotide deletion in the GPCR gene in virus isolates collected during 2022 outbreaks, not reported earlier in Indian LSDV strains. A crucial finding was a significant 95-nucleotide deletion in the Functional Resolution Sequence (FRS) repeats of LSDV genomes from 2022 outbreaks, absent in 2019 samples. These deletions may have influenced the virus's virulence in India.

Prevalence, duration of illness, and mortality of lumpy skin disease at Chuadanga Sadar Upazila, Bangladesh

Background: Lumpy skin disease (LSD) has emerged as a significant threat to cattle production in Chuadanga Sadar Upazila, Bangladesh. Our study aimed to assess the prevalence, mortality, and demographic distribution of LSD in the study area. Materials and Methods: A total of 634 cattle were observed during the study period. Data were collected using a well-prepared questionnaire through face-to-face interviews conducted in Chuadanga Sadar Upazila, Bangladesh, from August 7, 2022, to October 6, 2022. Results: The prevalence of LSD was 22.24% with variations observed between indigenous (51.77%) and cross-bred cattle (48.23%). The overall LSD mortality was 7%. Cross-breed male cattle showed a higher prevalence of LSD (57.35%) in comparison to cross-breed female-cattle (42.65%). The LSD prevalence was relatively higher in age-group > 6 months than other age groups. The average duration of illness varied among indigenous and cross-bred cattle. Indigenous cattle showed a longer average illness duration (6.79 days) compared to cross-breed cattle (5.5 days). The highest prevalence was observed in cattle aged up to 30 days (4.4%), with indigenous cattle accounting for 43% and cross-bred cattle for 57%. Conclusion: The findings of this study provide valuable insights into the prevalence, mortality, and demographic distribution of LSD in cattle at Chuadanga Sadar Upazila. The results offer a foundation for developing targeted interventions to control and manage LSD, thereby safeguarding cattle production in the region. Specifically, to optimize LSD vaccination strategies, it is recommended to prioritize indigenous cattle and male cross-bred due to their elevated susceptibility. Furthermore, particular emphasis should be placed on cattle aged below one month, with a specific focus on prioritizing treatment for male cross-bred to effectively mitigate the risk of fatalities.

Persistence of passive immunity in calves receiving colostrum from cows vaccinated with a live attenuated lumpy skin disease vaccine and the performance of serological tests.

This study aimed to determine the persistent duration of maternal immunity against lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) in dairy calves born from vaccinated cows using a virus neutralization test (VNT). The performance of the VNT and an in-house-ELISA test was also determined. Thirty-seven pregnant cows from 12 LSD-free dairy farms in Lamphun province, Thailand were immunized with a homologous Neethling strain-based attenuated vaccine and calved from December 2021 to April 2022. Blood samples from dam-calve pairs were collected within the first week after calving. Subsequently, blood samples were taken from the calves at monthly intervals over a period of 4 months and tested for the humoral immune response using a VNT. The calf sera were also tested with an in-house ELISA test to estimate the accuracy of both tests using a Bayesian approach. For the results, antibodies against LSDV can persist in cows for 4-9 months post-vaccination. Moreover, neutralizing antibodies and LSDV-specific antibodies against LSDV were detected in the majority of calves (75.68%) during the first week after colostrum intake. However, the percentage of seropositive calves declined to zero by day 120, with seropositivity dropping below 50% after day 60. Only a small number of seropositive calves (approximately 13.51%) were observed on day 90. These findings indicated that passive immunity against LSDV can last up to 3 months. The median of posterior estimates for sensitivity (Se) and specificity (Sp) of the VNT were 87.3% [95% posterior probability interval (PPI) = 81.1-92.2%] and 94.5% (95% PPI = 87.7-98.3%), respectively. The estimated Se and Sp for the ELISA test were 83.1% (95% PPI = 73.6-92.6%) and 94.7% (95% PPI = 88.4-98.5%), respectively. In conclusion, this study illustrates the transfer and persistence of maternal passive immunity against LSDV to calves under field conditions. This highlights a potential three-month vaccination gap in calves born from vaccinated cows, while an in-house ELISA test can be used as an ancillary test for LSDV immune response detection. However, further research is required to assess the vaccination protocols for calves as young as 2 months old to precisely determine the duration of maternal immunity.

Analysis of Acute Phase Response Using Acute Phase Proteins Following Simultaneous Vaccination of Lumpy Skin Disease and Foot-and-Mouth Disease.

Since 2011, South Korea has implemented biannual vaccinations against foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) and recently, lumpy skin disease (LSD), to mitigate the spread of transboundary animal diseases. However, due to past adverse reactions, potentially linked to acute phase responses from FMD vaccinations, there is hesitancy among Korean livestock farmers regarding new strategies for simultaneous vaccinations against both FMD and LSD. This study was conducted to assess possible adverse reactions to the LSD vaccination by analyzing acute phase proteins (APPs) in three groups: cows vaccinated against FMD (G1-FMDV), LSD (G2-LSDV), and both (G3-FMDV/LSDV). In G1-FMDV, APP levels peaked on day 3 post-vaccination (p < 0.001) and returned to baseline. In G2-LSDV, APP levels increased gradually, peaking on day 10 post-vaccination. In G3-FMDV/LSDV, APP levels peaked on day 3 post-vaccination and remained high until day 10 (p < 0.001). These results indicate that LSD vaccines trigger a later immune response compared to FMD vaccines, possibly due to different adjuvants. Therefore, a longer follow-up period for monitoring adverse reactions to LSD vaccinations may be required to understand and mitigate potential risks.

Platform establishment of the Cre-loxP recombination system for genetic manipulation of the Lumpy skin disease virus

Lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) is a rapidly emerging pathogen in Asia, including China. Genetic manipulation of the LSDV is essential for the elucidation of the pathogenic mechanism and biological function of the LSDV-encoded protein. In this study, we established a platform for the Cre-loxP recombination system under a modified early-late H5 promoter of the VACV for quick construction of the recombinant LSDV virus. The recombinant virus, LSDV-EGFP-ΔTK, was purified and obtained using serial limited dilution and picking the single cells methods. Using the lentiviral package system, a Cre recombinase enzyme stable expression MDBK cell line was established to supply the Cre recombinase for the reporter gene excision. A genetically stable, safe TK gene-deleted LSDV (LSDV-ΔTK) was constructed using homologous recombination and the Cre-loxP system. It was purified using limited dilution in the MDBK-Cre cell line. Establishing the Cre-loxP recombination system will enable sequential deletion of the interested genes from the LSDV genome and genetic manipulation of the LSDV genome, providing technical support and a platform for developing the attenuated LSDV vaccine.

A deterministic mathematical model with non-linear least squares method for investigating the transmission dynamics of lumpy skin disease

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is an economically significant viral disease of cattle caused by the lumpy disease virus (LSDV) which is primarily spread mechanically by blood feeding vectors such as particular species in flies, mosquitoes and ticks. Despite efforts to control its spread, LSD has been expanding geographically, posing challenges for effective control measures. This study develops a Susceptible–Exposed–Infectious–Recovered–Susceptible (SEIRS) model that incorporates cattle and vector populations to investigate LSD transmission dynamics. The model considers the waning rate of natural active immunity in recovered cattle, disease-induced mortality, and the biting rate. Using a standard dynamical system approach, we conducted a qualitative analysis of the model, defining the invariant region, establishing conditions for solution positivity, computing the basic reproduction number, and examining the stability of disease-free and endemic equilibria. We employ a non-linear least squares method for model calibration, fitting it to a synthetic dataset. We subsequently test it with actual infectious cases data. Results from the calibration and testing phases demonstrate the model’s validity and reliability for diverse settings. Local and global sensitivity analyses were conducted to determine the model’s robustness to parameter values. The biting rate emerged as the most significant parameter, followed by the probabilities of infection from either population and the recovery rate. Additionally, the waning rate of LSD infection-induced immunity gained positive significance in LSD prevalence from the beginning of the infectious period onward. Simulation results suggest reducing the biting rate as the most effective LSD control measure, which can be achieved by applying vector repellents in cattle farms/herds, thereby mitigating the disease’s prevalence in both cattle and vector populations and reducing the chances of infection from either population. Furthermore, measures aiming to boost LSD infection-induced immunity upon recovery are recommended to preserve the immune systems of the cattle population.

Insights into the involvement of male Hyalomma anatolicum ticks in transmitting Anaplasma marginale, lumpy skin disease virus and Theileria annulata.

Ticks can transmit viruses, bacteria, and parasites to humans, livestock, and pet animals causing tick-borne diseases (TBDs) mechanically or biologically in the world. Lumpy skin disease virus, Anaplasma marginale, and Theileria annulata inflict severe infections in cattle, resulting in significant economic losses worldwide. The study investigated the potential transmissions of LSDV, A. marginale, and T. annulata through male Hyalomma anatolicum ticks in cattle calves. Two 6-month-old Holstein crossbred calves designated as A and B were used. On day 1, 15 uninfected female ticks (IIa) and infected batch of 40 male ticks (I) were attached on calf A for 11 days. Filial transmission of the infections was observed in female ticks (IIb) collected from calf A, where 8 female ticks had been co-fed with infected male ticks. The blood sample of calf B was found positive through PCR for the infections. The larvae and egg pools obtained from the infected ticks were also tested positive in PCR. The study confirmed the presence of these mixed pathogens and potential intra-stadial and transovarial transmissions of A. marginale, T. annulata, and LSDV in male and female ticks of H. anatolicum and experimental calves to establish the feasibility of infections through an in vivo approach.

Integration of Mathematical Operators Based on Decision Boundary Complexity and Combinatorial Optimization for Improved Deep Learning Classifiers

The proliferation of complex diseases in livestock, such as lumpy skin disease, demands advanced diagnostic tools that can accurately classify and predict outbreaks. This study explores the integration of complex mathematical operators within deep learning classifiers to enhance their accuracy and efficiency in diagnosing lumpy skin disease. By focusing on the decision boundary complexity, which delineates different disease states in high-dimensional spaces, and employing combinatorial optimization techniques, we develop a novel framework that significantly improves classification performance. The methodology hinges on optimizing the configuration and combination of mathematical operators, such as gradient operators and higher-order derivatives, to refine feature extraction processes. This approach allows for a more nuanced understanding of the disease features that are critical for accurate classification. Using a dataset comprised of clinical and image data from infected cattle, our enhanced classifiers demonstrate a marked improvement in predictive accuracy compared to traditional deep learning models. The case study not only underscores the potential of integrating advanced mathematical concepts into deep learning but also sets a precedent for tackling similar challenges in veterinary medicine and beyond.

Identification of Lumpy Skin Disease in Cattle with Image Classification using the Convolutional Neural Network Method

Identification of Lumpy Skin Disease in Cattle with Image Classification using the Convolutional Neural Network Method

Genetic Characterization of Lumpy Skin Disease Viruses Circulating in Lesotho Cattle

Lumpy skin disease is one of the fast-spreading viral diseases of cattle and buffalo that can potentially cause severe economic impact. Lesotho experienced LSD for the first time in 1947 and episodes of outbreaks occurred throughout the decades. In this study, eighteen specimens were collected from LSD-clinically diseased cattle between 2020 and 2022 from Mafeteng, Leribe, Maseru, Berea, and Mohales’ Hoek districts of Lesotho. A total of 11 DNA samples were analyzed by PCR and sequencing of the extracellular enveloped virus (EEV) glycoprotein, G-protein-coupled chemokine receptor (GPCR), 30 kDa RNA polymerase subunit (RPO30), and B22R genes. All nucleotide sequences of the above-mentioned genes confirmed that the PCR amplicons of clinical samples are truly LSDV, as they were identical to respective LSDV isolates on the NCBI GenBank. Two of the elevem samples were further characterized by whole-genome sequencing. The analysis, based on both CaPV marker genes and complete genome sequences, revealed that the LSDV isolates from Lesotho cluster with the NW-like LSDVs, which includes the commonly circulating LSDV field isolates from Africa, the Middle East, the Balkans, Turkey, and Eastern Europe.

Lumpy Skin Disease: An Emerging Concern in Pakistan and its Impact on National Economic Loss

Lumpy Skin Disease (LSD), an emerging viral infection of cattle and buffalo, poses significant challenges to the livestock industry in Pakistan. Symptoms of this disease include enlarged appearance of lumps, high fever, discharge from the eyes and nose, and loss of appetite. The incubation period of this virus in cattle is approximately 28 days, as per the report of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). This viral infection spreads through direct contact among herds. The World Organization for Animal Health (WOAH) and the FAO both warn that the spread of illnesses could lead to serious economic losses. A considerable financial loss in this industry is due to the mortality rate, reduced milk and meat production rate, and increasing management and treatment expenses. Generally, the best administrative approach to treating this disease is vaccination, which is also an economically effective strategy. This review aims to provide insights into the symptoms, risk factors, control, and disease administrative strategies, economic loss associated with Lumpy Skin Disease, and the potential role of vaccination in future disease management strategies.

Epidemiological Risk Factors and Modelling Approaches for Risk Assessment of Lumpy Skin Disease Virus Introduction and Spread: Methodological Review and Implications for Risk-Based Surveillance in Australia

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is a vector-borne infection caused by the poxvirus lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) and is a serious disease of cattle, water buffalo, and banteng. While the disease has never occurred in Australia, it is regarded as a growing threat to the Australian cattle industry as there is on-going spread of the disease throughout Asia. The development of geospatial decision support tools, such as spatial epidemiological modelling, may assist in assessing areas at greater risk of this threat. To guide the design of disease modelling approaches to support future risk-based surveillance, existing LSDV epidemiological models need to be evaluated. In this study, we performed a literature review to evaluate existing LSDV epidemiological models, identify key risk factors for introduction and spread of LSDV, and consider previously adopted control strategies. The PRISMA guidelines were used to establish the processes for article selection and information extraction, and the PICO process was used to formulate search terms. From studies that met our inclusion criteria, we extracted information on LSDV epidemiological model structure and parameterisation, risk factors for LSDV transmission and spread, and biosecurity control strategies. The literature search retrieved a total of 402 articles from four databases, of which 68 were identified for inclusion in this review following screening. Of the 68 articles reviewed, 47 explored risk factors associated with LSDV transmission and spread, four explored risk factors of LSDV introduction, four explored existing surveillance strategies in LSD-free countries, and 14 presented epidemiological models. Our findings indicate that there are various risk factors for LSDV transmission in LSD endemic countries, including long-distance airborne movement of infected vectors such as stable flies and cattle movement between countries over land borders. Key risk factors for LSDV spread in LSD endemic countries include physical environmental characteristics, weather conditions, and population distributions of livestock and vectors. Our results indicate that while a variety of modelling studies have been conducted, the majority of studies experimentally explored LSD transmission mechanisms in vectors and cattle. Spatial and spatio-temporal models have primarily been developed for LSD endemic countries and focus on the spread of the disease in terms of environmental factors in relation to previous LSD events. There were very few studies on LSD-free countries, and these only focussed on risk of LSD introduction through specific entry pathways. This review did not identify any literature exploring the risk of spread of LSDV following introduction in LSD-free countries or geospatial modelling of the suitability of LSD-free countries for LSDV incursions. In conjunction with the risk parameters and models described in the identified literature, there is need to consider a wide range of risk factors specific to Australia to inform the design of risk-based surveillance for LSD in Australia.