Lumpy Skin Disease Outbreaks Research Articles

Outbreaks of Lumpy Skin Disease of Cattle in Bangladesh: What to Know and What to Do

Lumpy Skin Disease (LSD) is a transboundary disease of cattle originated in Africa. In recent years it has emerged in different countries with a severe impact on production. Bangladesh has now encountered the second consecutive year’s outbreak of LSD. The first outbreak occurred in 2019 while disease manifested with high fever, skin nodules and edema. The reported morbidity rate was 10 to 20% with a 1-5% mortality rate. Sharp decrease in milk production, long time treatment cost and reproductive difficulties lead to the widespread financial loss of farmers. But the scarcity of literature on the epidemiology, vector and genetic characteristic of the virus in Bangladesh cause delay in diagnosis and reporting which make the situation become worst. The author provides baseline data for enhancing future research and advocates preventive measures focusing on vector control. Quarantine and mass vaccination are efficient tools to halt the epidemic. However, extensive entomological surveillance might initiate a cost-effective measure through vector control. This paper might raise concerns to push the regulatory bodies and research communities for taking collaborative actions to prevent the serial outbreaks of LSD.

Molecular characterization of the 2018 outbreak of lumpy skin disease in cattle in Upper Egypt.

Background and Aim:Lumpy skin disease (LSD), an infectious disease of cattle, is characterized by raised nodules on the skin. Although the morbidity rate of LSD is low, it has a considerable fatality rate. Despite the annual mass vaccination of livestock with sheep pox vaccine (Veterinary Serum and Vaccine Research Institute, Egypt) enforced by Egyptian authorities, the LSD virus (LSDV) continues to circulate almost every summer. The present study aimed to discover the cause of cows naturally infected with LSDV circulating in Upper Egypt during the summer of 2018 using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay and to analyze their phylogenetics against reference genome sequences.Materials and Methods:We cultured LSDV in specific pathogen-free embryonated chicken eggs (SPF-ECE) and used conventional PCR to identify fusion and P32 genes, previously deposited in GenBank (MN694826, MN694827, and MN954664). Sequencing and phylogenetic analyses were performed on these two highly conserved viral genes.Results:LSDV infection of SPF-ECE resulted in characteristic white pock lesions. PCR products were identified on 1.5% agarose gel after electrophoresis at the expected positions for the fusion and P32 genes at 472 and 587 bp, respectively.Conclusion:The present study revealed that the two viral genes were identified from the Beni Suef and Sohag Governorates in all clinical cases and confirmed the circulation of LSDV in this outbreak. After sequencing, these genes were identical to those of the LSDV that had been identified and recorded in GenBank for the past 3 years.

Lumpy skin disease virus: transmission to dipteran vectors using animal and ex-vivo models

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is a tropical neglected viral disease of cattle, characterised by numerous cutaneous lesions disseminated throughout the body. Historically endemic to the African continent, it has become a threat to Europe following the outbreaks of LSD in the Middle East and Eastern Europe. LSD virus (LSDV) is a Capripoxvirus transmitted by insect vectors. Experimental and epidemiological studies have indicated a role for the stable fly (Stomoxys calcintrans) and the mosquito Aedes aegypti. Nevertheless the relative importance of these vector species and others is unclear. A study was designed to explore the risk of transmission of LSDV from cattle to different vector species including Aedes aegypti, Culex quinquefasciatus, Stomoxys calcitrans and Culicoides nubeculosus. Cattle was challenged with LSDV to produce a bovine experimental model used as a natural source of LSDV to the potential vectors. Cattle samples were taken to quantify LSDV in different tissues and characterise the disease. All insect species were allowed to feed on LSDV-challenged cattle at regular intervals and incubated for up to eight days. This data was then used to model the dynamics of LSDV infection and transmission. All four species were able to acquire and maintain LSDV for up to eight days post feeding, and the risk of transmission from bovine donor to insect was dependent on the severity of the disease. A model was then generated using ex-vivo skin lesions and infectious blood that will allow further studies of the role of these vectors.

Total Number of Cattle in the Republic of Serbia after an Outbreak of Lumpy Skin Disease

Numerous studies conducted worldwide indicate a tendency towards a continuous decline in number of cattle. Appropriate measures should be taken to prevent the reduction of the number of cattle and to increase the concentration of animals per farm. In this regard, the objective of this study was to analyze the total number of cattle after an outbreak of Lumpy Skin Disease (LSD) in the Republic of Serbia. Due to the occurrence of this highly dangerous infectious disease in the Balkans and Eastern Europe, emergency and preventive vaccination was performed in infected and vulnerable areas in the Republic of Serbia. To prevent the spread of LSD, competent authorities banned public gatherings of cattle at fairs, exhibitions, livestock markets and purchase places, which resulted in economic losses for certain farmers. This disease is believed to have impacted the total number of cattle slaughtered and the number of deaths, as well as the import and export of live cattle, animal products and by-products of animal origin. The comparison between indices for the number of cattle shows a decline in the total number of cattle in the analyzed period across statistical territorial units. Results on the total number of cattle can be used, among other things, to create new and more complex questions arising from current and future farming problems.

Epizootic features and control measures for lumpy skin disease in south-east Serbia in 2016.

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is an infectious disease of cattle caused by virus of the Capripoxvirus genus (LSDV), family Poxviridae. Until 2015, it had not appeared in the Balkans. In June 2016, LSD spread throughout Serbia. This study analyses the first LSD occurrence, epizootic features, applied diagnostic procedures and control measures in five districts in south-east Serbia (Pcinja, Jablanica, Pirot, Toplica and Nisava). In total, there were 225 LSD outbreaks reported in Serbia, out of which 189 (84%) were located in the study area. The highest number of outbreaks was registered in Pcinja district (169), where LSD was first registered. The median distance and time between the nearest previous outbreak sites were calculated (4.32km and 9days). The median altitude of outbreak locations was 992m with more than 90% above 500m (p≤0.001). The average herd morbidity rate in the study area was 13.6% and the herd mortality rate was recorded only in Pcinja (0.5%) and Jablanica (1.6%) districts. Samples taken from the cattle suspected to LSD were subjected to real time PCR analysis. Out of 233 samples tested for LSDV 132 (56.7%) were positive. The LSDV genome was identified in skin nodules (85.4%), blood (72.7%) and nasal swabs (62.5%). Phylogenetic analysis indicated that the LSDV strain circulating in Serbia fell within the cluster of field LSDV found worldwide. In response to the LSD epizootic, animal trade and movement were prohibited, complete stamping out, disinfection, disinsection and an entire bovine population vaccination using the homologous Neethling live attenuated vaccine (OBP, South Africa) were conducted. A month and a half after the completion of the vaccination campaign, the LSD epizootic was stopped, and no new cases have been reported since.

Isolation, Molecular Characterisation and Vaccine Effectiveness Study of Lumpy Skin Disease Virus in Selected Diary Farms of Central Ethiopia

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is economically important viral disease of cattle mainly in Africa and Middle East. Mass vaccination is a better strategy to control this disease in endemic countries. However, there is an increasing field report of vaccine failure. Thus, observational study was designed to investigate LSD outbreaks and vaccine effectiveness. Different dairy farms were selected on basis of reports of outbreak occurrence. A total of 191 dairy cattle from 17 smallholder and 1551 from four big dairy farms were included for assessment. Skin biopsies were taken from 31 LSD affected cattle for isolation and molecular characterization. Semi-structured questionnaires were administered to farm owners, animal health personnel and farm managers to gather relevant epidemiological data. Out of 1742 dairy cattle, 213 (12.2%) showed characteristic clinical signs of LSD and 27 cattle (1.5%) were died as the result of the disease. Viruses were isolated from 26 skin samples on Vero cell line and the isolates were confirmed to be LSDV using conventional PCR and real-time PCR. The complete sequence of RPO30 gene of the isolates showed that all isolates substituted at least one nucleotide in respect to vaccine strains. The vaccine effectiveness of annual vaccination was estimated to be 67.1% (95% CI = 57.3 – 74.7) in contrast to vaccination during outbreaks. Conversely, the occurrences of outbreak of LSD infection in vaccinated dairy herds are suggestive of vaccine failure. Thus, it’s the time to direct efforts towards to the development of new effective vaccine. Keywords: Dairy Cattle; Ethiopia; LSD; LSDV; Outbreak; Vaccine Effectiveness DOI : 10.7176/JBAH/9-11-01 Publication date :June 30 th 2019

Assessing the possible causes of hemolytic anemia associated with lumpy skin disease naturally infected buffaloes

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is an acute viral disease caused by the lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) of the Poxviridae family. LSD is characterized by lumps covering most parts of the body. Few approaches have been developed for LSD in water buffaloes; thus, the relationship between the hematological and biochemical characteristics of this disease was executed out. From July 2014 to November 2016, 608 female non-pregnant lactating buffaloes during an outbreak of LSD in Egypt were thoroughly examined. LSD morbidity rate was 1.97% (12 buffaloes) without recorded mortality. Infected buffaloes manifest fever, anorexia, and an efflorescence of different sized skin lumps that range from a few to multiple lesions. Blood samples were obtained at first day and 3 weeks post-outcrop of the skin lumps. Skin examinations showed the presence of intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies. Erythrogram from buffaloes infected with LSD revealed non-significant alterations during the early disease stages, whereas hemolytic anemia was obvious in the later stages. Biochemical analyses revealed the occurrence of hypophosphatemia with an imbalance in the oxidant anti-oxidant status, a raise of pro-inflammatory cytokines, and excess of liver, heart, and kidney markers. This study concluded that buffaloes show limited susceptibility to LSD, although the presence of hypophosphatemia could exaggerate hemolytic anemia under an oxidant-anti-oxidant imbalance and increased pro-inflammatory cytokines.

A study of Lumpy skin disease outbreak in Thi Qar Province

A study of Lumpy skin disease outbreak in Thi Qar Province

Lumpy skin disease: III. Data collection and analysis.

In 2018, no lumpy skin disease (LSD) outbreaks were reported in the Balkan region, after the decline reported in 2017 (385) compared to 2016 (7,483). This confirms the effectiveness of the vaccination campaign based on the LSD homologous vaccine strain which continued throughout 2018 with over 2.5 million animals vaccinated, keeping the mean vaccination coverage above 70%. In 2018, LSD outbreaks were reported in Russia, Turkey and Georgia. In Russia, the LSD epidemics expanded northward and eastward, while in Turkey, the most affected region was in the east. LSD is spreading in Turkey since 2013, despite large vaccination campaigns with heterologous vaccine performed since 2014. This might support the hypothesis that the use of heterologous vaccines results in insufficient protection, and therefore, the use of homologous LSD vaccine in Turkey should be considered to prevent further spread. As the LSD epidemic in Turkey is a risk for reintroduction into the EU, it is recommended to continue the vaccination campaigns in 2019 in the high‐risk areas of Balkan region. Spread rates of LSD within a village were estimated from outbreak data for Albania, which can be used to inform the level of vaccination required to control an outbreak in a village. In terms of vaccine safety, the reports from the field suggest that, compared to the large number of animals vaccinated in the Balkan region since 2015, a very limited number of side effects have been recorded so far, although from published literature, local or even systemic side effects in some animals may occur after vaccination. However, due to inadequate study design in the reviewed studies, there is no consensus on the magnitude of such effects and on their real consequences on production.

Risk of introduction of Lumpy Skin Disease into France through imports of cattle.

The lumpy skin disease (LSD) virus belongs to the genus Capripoxvirus and causes a disease in cattle with economic impacts. In November 2014, the disease was first reported in Europe (in Cyprus); it was then reported in Greece (in August 2015) and has spread through different Balkan countries since 2016. Although vector transmission is predominant in at-risk areas, long-distance transmission usually occurs through movements of infected cattle. In order to estimate the threat for France, a quantitative import risk analysis (QIRA) model was developed to assess the risk of LSD being introduced into France by imports of cattle. Based on available information and using a stochastic model, the probability of a first outbreak of LSD in France following the import of batches of infected live cattle for breeding or fattening was estimated to be 5.4×10-4 (95% probability interval [PI]: 0.4×10-4 ; 28.7×10-4 ) in summer months (during high vector activity) and 1.8×10-4 (95% PI: 0.14×10-4 ; 15×10-4 ) in winter months. The development of a stochastic QIRA made it possible to quantify the risk of LSD being introduced into France through imports of live cattle. This tool is of prime importance because the LSD situation in the Balkans is continuously changing. Indeed, this model can be updated to process new information on the changing health situation in addition to new data from the TRAde Control and Expert System (TRACES, EU database). This model is easy to adapt to different countries and to other diseases.

Spatial analysis of lumpy skin disease in Eurasia-Predicting areas at risk for further spread within the region.

Data from affected lumpy skin disease (LSD) locations between July 2012 and September 2018 in the Balkans, Caucasus, and Middle East were retrieved from FAO's Global Animal Disease Information System (EMPRES-i) from the European Commission's Animal Disease Notification System (ADNS) and completed with data from the official veterinary services of some countries. During this period, a total of 7,593 locations from 22 countries were affected. Within this period, over 46,000 cattle were clinically affected by LSD, 3,700 animals died and 17,500 were slaughtered due to culling policies to stop the spread of the disease. Most outbreaks occurred in 2016, between the months of May and November. The affected region was divided into a grid of 10×10km cells and we fit a spatial regression model to analyse the association between the reported LSD outbreaks and climatic variables, land cover, and cattle density. The results showed big differences in the odds of being LSD positive due to the type of land cover: the odds of a cell being LSD positive was increased in areas mostly covered with croplands, grassland, or shrubland. The odds was also increased for higher cattle density, as well as areas with higher annual mean temperature and higher temperature diurnal range. The resulting model was utilized to predict the LSD risk in neighbouring unaffected areas in Europe, the Caucasus, and Central Asia, identifying several areas with high risk of spread. Results from this study provide useful information for the design of surveillance and awareness systems, and preventive measures, e.g., vaccination programmes.

Outbreak of lumpy skin disease in a dairy farm in Keffi, Nasarawa State, Nigeria

A dairy farm in Keffi, Nasarawa State, North Central Nigeria reported cases of skin infections in cattle suggestive of lumpy skin disease (LSD) in the years 2014 and 2016. During the 2016 outbreak, skin biopsies were collected for laboratory investigation using histopathology and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The samples were subjected to PCR using two sets of primers which amplified the G-protein-coupled chemokine receptor (GPCR) gene and RNA polymerase subunit gene (RPO30) of the LSD virus (LSDV). Clinical signs observed in the two outbreaks were similar and included ocular and nasal discharges, nodular skin lesion, and pyrexia and reduced milk production. Morbidity rate was 6.25% (25/400) in 2014 and the mortality rate was 2.5% (10/400). Furthermore, the second outbreak in 2016 had morbidity and mortality rates of 5% (20/400) and 0.5 % (2/400) respectively. From animals that died in the 2014 outbreak, necropsy findings included nodular lesions on the skin, muzzle, in the buccal cavity and nasal mucosa. Also, congested and oedematous lungs and enlarged lymph nodes were observed. The nodular skin lesions observed during the 2016 outbreak were larger and more numerous in the Sokoto Gudali, while the Holstein Friesian cross had smaller gross skin nodules with acute to sub-acute histopathologic changes. The histopathological examination of the skin biopsy of the HF was consistent with LSD viral lesions, while PCR detected the RPO30 and GPCR gene fragments of LSDV. Keywords: Dairy, histopathology, Lumpy skin disease, polymerase chain reaction, Nigeria

Economic cost of lumpy skin disease outbreaks in three Balkan countries: Albania, Bulgaria and the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (2016-2017).

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is an emerging viral disease that was detected for the first time in the Balkan Peninsula in Greece in 2015. In April 2016, there was a reoccurrence in Greece and the spread of the disease for the first time into Bulgaria, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Serbia, Kosovo, Albania and Montenegro. The veterinary services of the countries responded with different strategies to control the disease, mostly based on mass vaccination campaigns and diverse stamping out approaches. During 2017, the epidemic was mostly controlled except for outbreaks reported in Albania, Greece and the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. The study aims to quantify the cost of disease and control measures in three selected Balkan countries, that is, Albania, Bulgaria and the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, which were differently affected by the disease, had different animal production structures and implemented different control strategies. The total cost for the three countries was 20.9 million Euro (EUR 20.9m), mostly incurred in 2016 (EUR 16.6m), when the disease was spreading throughout the Balkan region. In 2017 (data until October), the cost was EUR 4.0m, mainly due to vaccination costs. Bulgaria was the country with the highest total cost at EUR 8.6m, followed by the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (EUR 6.7m) and Albania (EUR 5.3m). According to our data, the average cost per affected herd in 2016 was EUR 869, EUR 6,994 and EUR 3,071 in Albania, Bulgaria and the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, respectively. The cost per animal in the affected herds was EUR 539, 147 and 258, respectively. The results from this study are useful to understand the cost of LSD outbreaks in the region, which might contribute to improve the surveillance and control of the disease.

Detection of vaccine-like lumpy skin disease virus in cattle and Musca domestica L. flies in an outbreak of lumpy skin disease in Russia in 2017.

Since 2012, lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) has been spreading from the Middle East to south-east Europe and Russia. Although vaccination campaigns have managed to contain LSDV outbreaks, the risk of further spread is still high. The most likely route of LSDV transmission in short distance spread is vector-borne. Several arthropod species have been suggested as potential vectors, but no proven vector has yet been identified. To check whether promiscuous-landing synanthropic flies such as the common housefly (Musca domestica) could be involved, we carried out entomological trapping at the site of a recent LSDV outbreak caused by a vaccine-like LSDV strain. The presence of vaccine-like LSDV DNA was confirmed by the assay developed herein, the assay by Agianniotaki etal. (2017) and RPO30 gene sequencing. No evidence of field LSDV strain circulation was revealed. In this study, we discovered that M.domestica flies carried vaccine-like LSDV DNA (Ct >25.5), whereas trapped stable flies from the same collection were negative for both field and vaccine LSDV. To check whether flies were contaminated internally and externally, 50 randomly selected flies from the same collection were washed four times and tested. Viral DNA was mainly detected in the 1st wash fluid, suggesting genome or even viral contamination on the insect cadaver. In this study, internal contamination in the insect bodies without differentiation between the body locations was also revealed; however, the clinical relevance for mechanical transmission is unknown. Further work is needed to clarify a role of M.domestica in the transmission of LSDV. To our knowledge, this is the first report demonstrating that an attenuated LSD vaccine strain has been identified in Russian cattle given the ban on the use of live attenuated vaccines against LSDV.

Phylogenetic analysis of the lumpy skin disease viruses in northwest of Iran.

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is a devastating viral disease of cattle which has recently spread from Africa into the countries of the Middle East. The aim of the present study was to investigate the relationships among lumpy skin disease viruses (LSDV) isolated from different regions of Iran and the origin and spread of these viruses. In this study, a total of 234 blood samples from clinically affected animals from four provinces in the northwest of Iran were screened for LSDV using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). From 80 positive samples for LSDV detected by PCR, the partial P32 gene (759bp) of 12 isolates were sequenced and phylogenetically analyzed. LSD viruses were grouped in three subclusters with an overall 97.1-100% nucleotide identity. LSDVs isolated from Gilan showed lowest nucleotide identity with the other LSDVs. Four isolates of LSDV including KO-1, EA-1, EA-3, and WA-3 showed 100% similarity with each other and also with the Neethling strain. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that the identified LSDVs were closely related to each other and had high-sequence homology with other LSDV isolates from Africa. It was concluded that LSD outbreak probably occurred in the northwest of Iran by LSDVs entering the country from Iraq and P32 nucleotide sequence information obtained in the present study is a valuable resource in understanding the genetic nature and molecular epidemiology of local LSDV isolates which can be used for future vaccine development based on the circulating strains in the region.

Spatial and temporal distribution of lumpy skin disease outbreaks in Uganda (2002\u20132016)

BackgroundLumpy skin disease (LSD) is a devastating transboundary viral disease of cattle which causes significant loss in production. Although this disease has been reported in Uganda and throughout East Africa, there is almost no information about its epidemiology, spatial or spatio-temporal distribution. We carried out a retrospective study on the epidemiology of LSD in Uganda between the years 2002 and 2016, using data on reported outbreaks collected monthly by the central government veterinary administration. Descriptive statistics were computed on frequency of outbreaks, number of cases, vaccinations and deaths. We evaluated differences in the number of reported outbreaks across different regions (agro-ecological zones), districts, months and years. Spatial, temporal and space-time scan statistics were used to identify possible epidemiological clusters of LSD outbreaks.ResultsA total of 1161 outbreaks and 319,355 cases of LSD were reported from 55 out of 56 districts of Uganda. There was a significant difference in incidence between years (P = 0.007) and across different regions. However, there was no significant difference in the number of outbreaks per month (P = 0.443). The Central region reported the highest number of outbreaks (n = 418, 36%) followed by Eastern (n = 372, 32%), Southwestern (n = 140, 12%), Northern (n = 131, 11%), Northeastern (n = 37, 3%), Western (n = 41, 4%) and Northwestern (n = 22, 2%) regions. Several endemic hotspots for the circulation of LSD were identified in the Central and Eastern regions using spatial cluster analyses. Outbreaks in endemic hotspots were less seasonal and had strikingly lower mortality and case-fatality rates than the other regions, suggesting an underlying difference in the epidemiology and impact of LSD in these different zones.ConclusionLumpy Skin disease is endemic in Uganda, with outbreaks occurring annually in all regions of the country. We identified potential spatial hotspots for LSD outbreaks, underlining the need for risk-based surveillance to establish the actual disease prevalence and risk factors for disease maintenance. Space-time analysis revealed that sporadic LSD outbreaks tend to occur both within and outside of endemic areas. The findings from this study will be used as a baseline for further epidemiological studies for the development of sustainable programmes towards the control of LSD in Uganda.

Epidemiological characterization of lumpy skin disease outbreaks in Russia in 2016.

In 2015, the lumpy skin disease virus spread throughout the Russian Federation. Following a modified stamping-out campaign, the disease re-emerged with a greater incidence across 16 regions of Southern and Central Russia. A total of 313 outbreaks were reported to OIE. The highest outbreak frequency was observed in the republics of Chechnya (108), Kalmykiya (57), and Ingushetiya (35). The disease cases predominantly occurred in June and July 2016, starting from May to December; however, no association between outbreaks and altitudes was identified (p>.05). Samples taken from infected cattle were subjected to PCR analysis, which identified the genome of the virus most frequently in skin nodules (78%), nasal swabs (23.4%), blood (13%) and sera (14.5%). Interestingly, LSDV genome was occasionally identified in lung and milk samples. Based on the PRO30 sequence analysis, lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) strains circulating in Russia were all identical and fell within the cluster of field LSDV found worldwide.

A study of Lumpy skin disease outbreak in Thi Qar Province

In this study the clinical diagnosis of lumpy skin disease was depended. A total 1606 serum samples and skin biopsies collected from infected cows clinically with skin nodule of different size which change to a necrotic nodule or form a deep scab, from wide different areas and cities of Thi Qar , extended from June to November at 2016. ELISA were performed for identification of LSDV antibodies, LSDV isolation was carried out on CAM of ECE and Viral DNA was extracted from skin biopsy for PCR. All serum samples was show seropositivity against LSD. Isolation of LSD virus from skin biopsy was conducted on CAM and the isolated virus was identified by PCR. collection and processing of clinical samples, viral isolation and PCR assay, for LSDV are much sensitive and rapid diagnostic of LSD their importance in controlling the rapid spread of disease in Iraq.

Outbreak investigation and molecular diagnosis of Lumpy skin disease among livestock in Saudi Arabia 2016.

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is a highly infectious disease of cattle caused by a virus of the Capripoxvirus genus in the family Poxviridae. The disease is a major concern for the dairy industry in Saudi Arabia. In this study, an outbreak of LSD in cattle herds was detected in Saudi Arabia in 2016. LSD outbreak was investigated in five regions of Saudi Arabia: Al-Hassa, Al-Sharqia, Al-Qassim, Riyadh and Al-Taif during the period from April to July 2016. Tissues from skin nodules were collected to characterize the virus by a real-time polymerase chain reaction (rt-PCR). During this period, 64,109 cattle were examined and morbidity, mortality and case fatality rates were 6%, 0.99% and 16.6%, respectively. The analysis showed 3,852 infected cases and 641 deaths. highest number of infected animals was reported in Al-Hassa (2,825), followed by Al-Qassim (547), Riyadh (471), Al-Sharqia (6) and Al-Taif (3). The highest morbidity rates were observed in Al-Qassim (6.8%), Al-Hassa (6.2%), Riyadh (5.5%) and Al-Taif (0.96%), while the lowest morbidity rates were recorded in Al-Sharqia (0.27%). The highest mortality rates were also observed in Al-Qassim (2.3%), followed by Al-Hassa (0.97%), Riyadh (0.19%) and lowest in Al-Sharqia and Taif (0%). LSD virus was detected in all samples (n=191) by real-time PCR analysis. The disease has been observed in the cattle regardless of previous vaccination using the locally Romanian-pox vaccine; therefore, vaccination programme and vaccine efficacy should be assessed under field conditions.

Temporal and spatial distribution of lumpy skin disease outbreaks in Ethiopia in the period 2000 to 2015

BackgroundLumpy skin disease (LSD) is an infectious viral disease of cattle caused by a virus of the genus Capripoxvirus. LSD was reported for the first time in Ethiopia in 1981 and subsequently became endemic. This time series study was undertaken with the aims of identifying the spatial and temporal distribution of LSD outbreaks and to forecast the future pattern of LSD outbreaks in Ethiopia.ResultsA total of 3811 LSD outbreaks were reported in Ethiopia between 2000 and 2015. In this period, LSD was reported at least once in 82% of the districts (n = 683), 88% of the administrative zones (n = 77), and all of the regional states or city administrations (n = 9 and n = 2) in the country. The average incidence of LSD outbreaks at district level was 5.58 per 16 years (0.35 year−1). The incidence differed between areas, being the lowest in hot dry lowlands and highest in warm moist highland. The occurrence of LSD outbreaks was found to be seasonal. LSD outbreaks generally have a peak in October and a low in May. The trend of LSD outbreaks indicates a slight, but statistically significant increase over the study period. The monthly precipitation pattern is the reverse of LSD outbreak pattern and they are negatively but non-significantly correlated at lag 0 (r = −0.05, p = 0.49, Spearman rank correlation) but the correlation becomes positive and significant when the series are lagged by 1 to 6 months, being the highest at lag 3 (r = 0.55, p < 0.001). The forecast for the period 2016–2018 revealed that the highest number of LSD outbreaks will occur in October for all the 3 years and the lowest in April for the year 2016 and in May for 2017 and 2018.ConclusionLSD occurred in all major parts of the country. Outbreaks were high at the end of the long rainy season. Understanding temporal and spatial patterns of LSD and forecasting future occurrences are useful for indicating periods when particular attention should be paid to prevent and control the disease.