Luhmann's Theory Research Articles

Theory and Methodology in Sociology–Guiding Distinction

ABSTRACTThis study analyses how theory and methodology function as guiding distinctions in sociology, drawing upon Niklas Luhmann's social systems theory. By examining fifteen Croatian sociologists who engaged with a hypothetical case study on generative artificial intelligence in labour markets, we analysed their theoretical and methodological approaches. The findings reveal a distinct ‘methodological imperative,’ as participants tended to align more around structured rules and data‐gathering procedures rather than around theoretical frameworks. This suggests that methodology, with its standardised forms, provides a clearer path for inclusion in scientific communication, whereas theory remains conceptually broader yet comparatively less structured. Consequently, the study underscores the interplay between these two programmes in shaping sociology's collective knowledge, illustrating how their co‐existence supports the discipline's ongoing capacity for self‐differentiation.

System analysis in the study of the large city`s transport system

Two versions of the system analysis are analyzed as a methodological tool for studying the transport system of a large city. Attention is paid to such sources of systemic thinking as T. Parsons' system-activity theory and N. Luhmann's theory of systems. The prospects of using N. Luhmann's theoretical approach to the analysis of the transport system as a set of all social communications, as an autopoietic system, are determined.

‘The end user takes the final decision’

ABSTRACTWhile social sciences are brimming with attention for the transformations brought about by AI and digital technology, the aspect of communication has received remarkably little attention. Niklas Luhmann's social system theory, which conceives social systems as constituted through ongoing communication, is particularly well equipped to make a relevant contribution. This paper investigates the Impact of AI on organisations as systems of decision‐communications, along the lines of four distinctions: decision premise–decision, system memory–environment, organisation system–interaction system and structural coupling–loose coupling. The deployment of AI is a reaction to the growing societal differentiation and the resulting future‐related contingency, and as such contributes to the viability of organisations as systems. Nevertheless, social systems theory explains how certain impacts of AI we witness, some of them potentially harmful to the viability of the organisation, are neither incidental nor temporal but are structurally related to the basic operations of organisations. A proposal is made how reflection loops can be introduced to counter some of these consequences.

Sociological Perspectives on AI, Intelligence and Communication

ABSTRACTIntroduction. This article presents a comprehensive theoretical model to understand the societal challenges posed by AI, examining AI as a unique form of intelligence—distinct from human cognition—that functions as a computational technology integrated into societal communication processes. Using educational systems as a key example, the article explores AI's implications for functional differentiation across society. Methods. The study applies Luhmann's systems theory, emphasizing communication, double contingency, and the transformative role of digital media and AI. A sociological analysis is conducted on how AI, through virtual double contingency, affects communication within interaction, organization, and functional systems, embedding values beyond negotiation. Results. Findings indicate that AI results in algorithmic differentiation which disrupts traditional communication structures, diminishing functional autonomy within systems like education and altering social structures with profound implications for individuals and society. This transformation is analysed within three societal models: authoritarian, market‐driven, and democratic. Conclusion. While AI integration is essential to maintain European competitiveness alongside the USA and China, it also poses risks to functional differentiation and democratic principles. The article underscores the necessity of a robust regulatory framework and value‐driven approach to responsibly leverage AI's benefits without undermining societal structures or the European democratic model.

NAVIGATING THE GRAY: THE ECONOMIC UNDERBELLY OF TIKTOK'S SIDE HUSTLES

This study investigates the nexus between the attention economy and digital disinformation on TikTok, drawing from Esposito's adaptation of Luhmann’s system theory to the digital age and Swartz's exploration of the socio-economic layers of digital transactions. It zeroes in on cryptocurrency scams as a case study to illuminate how disinformation is propagated for economic gain, using TikTok's API for comprehensive analysis. The research employs advanced data analytics to examine how digital platforms, via algorithmic filtering, shape the flow and influence of content, thereby enabling the proliferation of disinformation markets. By thematic clustering of problematic Facebook narratives and identifying scam-specific jargon, this study pinpoints tactics used on TikTok related to the 2024 Bitcoin halving. It scrutinizes how manipulators exploit technical and platform-specific vulnerabilities for profit, integrating Luhmann's double contingency theory to elucidate the feedback loops that enhance content virality and algorithmic dissemination. This theoretical framework illuminates the complex interplay between user interactions and algorithmic preferences, which, in turn, feed into the economics of disinformation markets. The research underscores the strategic manipulation of digital platforms to foster disinformation, spotlighting the role of algorithms and user engagement in the commodification of attention within these markets. Through this lens, the study aims to provide insights into the operational dynamics of disinformation markets, offering a nuanced understanding of how digital misinformation is not merely a byproduct of technological advancement but a structured market leveraging the inherent vulnerabilities of digital platforms and their users.

Nursing as a Functional System of Society. A Systems Theoretical Perspective on Nursing and the Research Object of Nursing Science.

The transformation of societies' age structures has intensified the need for nursing care, especially in economically developed regions of the world. Thiswill necessitate societal decisions that determine how care needs are met in the long term. This article offers a sociological perspective on nursing care using Luhmann's systems theory. To make the designation of a functional nursing system with independent observation plausible, social changes were traced based on historical events, semantics, and other social structures to develop the primary view of the nursing system. On this basis, a functional definition of the nursing system and its relationship to problems and problem-solving is possible. This proposal is intended to clarify the fundamental questions of nursing science: What is nursing and what is behind it? Through abstraction, this article develops a unified representation of nursing's distinct way of observation to support the determination of a unique research object for nursing science as an academic discipline. In line with Brandenburg's statement that nursing science must follow the interests of others as long as it is not possible to conquer a terrain occupied by the discipline independently, the need to develop a genuine discipline remains. Only then, it is assumed, can nursing science significantly contribute to other functional systems and to societal decisions that will determine how care needs are addressed in the future.

Church and Diaconia as Social Systems

The article "Church and Diaconia as Social Systems" explores applying Niklas Luhmann's social systems theory to religious institutions, particularly the Church and its diaconal functions. It presents the Church as a self-regulating system that provides spiritual, moral, and social leadership while interacting with political, economic, and legal systems. Similarly, Diaconia, defined as the Church’s service-oriented mission, is examined as an autonomous social system focused on welfare, advocacy, and justice. The Church and Diaconia are analysed for their functional differentiations, complexities, and communication patterns. This article draws light on the evolution of the practice of Diaconia from traditionally charity-oriented to justice-focused and examines its actions in addressing global crises, such as poverty, diseases, climate change, education, food insecurity, and migration. Integrating theological reflection with social systems theory is not just a mere addition. However, it provides a comprehensive framework that allows the paper to offer a deep understanding of the Church's and Diaconia's evolving roles in modern society.

An Impossible Turn? The Dialogical/Participatory Potential of Science Communication Provided by Science Centers in Light of Niklas Luhmann's Systems Theory

One important dimension of the debate surrounding science communication is the tension between the implementation of the deficit model and the repeated calls for the adoption of dialogical and participatory models. This article aims to show this friction empirically and interpret it theoretically. The text uses the operation of science centers as a form of science communication. Niklas Luhmann's systems theory serves as a tool to capture the broad structural difficulty in implementing participatory demands in science communication. This paper is based on research conducted in Polish science centers. It demonstrates that even in the organizationally favourable and relatively inclusive conditions offered by these centers, the environment as a whole cannot regulate the activities of the science system. It lacks knowledge of the essential social determinants of research activity and the areas of unfinished science. Conversely, the detailed findings of science are challenging to integrate such that they become comprehensively readable by the community without becoming a scientific black box. Luhmann's theory elucidates this fundamental difficulty in building the science-society relationship. From this perspective, a consistent and broad turn towards the dialogical and participatory model appears impossible.

LEGITIMAÇÃO, PROCEDIMENTO E FUNDAMENTAÇÃO DAS DECISÕES JUDICIAIS

This academic article intends to analyze the relation between Niklas Luhmann's theory of Legitimation by procedure and the need to substantiate judicial decisions, in order to answer whether judicial substantiation is a requirement for legitimation in Niklas Luhmann's systems theory and in accordance with the Brazilian legal system (also from a procedural perspective). To facilitate reading and understanding, some definitions regarding the concepts used by the German author in his work will be briefly provided throughout the text, which will certainly help the reader to understand the proposal and conclusions of this article.

Prolegomena to a genealogy of “society”

The article reconstructs the evolution of the semantics of one of the social sciences’ most important concepts, that of society. It follows two main systematizations, those of the societas and the societas civilis, respectively, through a millennia-long history rooted in Graeco-Roman civilization. This history exhibits remarkable continuity across time. Its modern adaptations survive to the present day. But the social sciences appear to know only the latter which, in the form of the nation-state, they adopted as their default model under the intellectual leadership of Parsons. Recent developments in the social world have rendered that model obsolete. This leaves the social sciences in dire straits, as they have failed, with one exception, to develop a persuasive alternative. The exception is Niklas Luhmann's systems theory of world society, a theory barely known outside small niche circles. The article ends on a brief speculative note about what might account for the odd tenacity of a theoretically untenable concept.

Towards the sociology of pets—Social functions of animals in contemporary societies observed from systems theoretical perspective

AbstractThis paper advocates for introducing sociology of pets as a particular field of research as the response of ever growing social relevance of pets in contemporary societies. Though other theoretical approaches are suitable for tackling these complex issues, the article offers viewpoint from Luhmann's social systems theory. Based on Luhmann's writings on ecological communication, the article departs from the system/environment distinction and conceives pets as being part of a society's environment that attained resonance of a social system. Further, entry of pets into a social system is interpreted through differentiation theorem arguing that pets perform highly relevant social functions for all functional subsystems of a society by contributing to their autopoietic reproduction. This is primarily accomplished through communication about pets, emerging specific semantics, usage of binary codes specific for different subsystems, correspondence to their mediums, programs and functions. The major part of work is presenting relations of pets to 10 functional subsystems of a society, as this delineates scope of empirical phenomena of potential interest for sociology of pets. These processes might be observed at systemic, organizational and interaction levels. Despite possessing multiple merits, also, certain limits of Luhmann's account of pets are unfolded, such as incapability to hear authentic voices of animals, but rather distorted semantic codes emerging from consciousness of human psychic systems, afterwards structurally coupled with communication as a medium of social systems. At this point, social systems theory might be complemented by theory of interspecies communication, as taking into consideration other theoretical approaches anchored at ontologies pertinent to include non‐human agents is invocated. The tentative outcome of this introductory discussion is that apparent process of anthro‐morphosization of animals is taking place while the question of relation between humans–humans in the context of building just societies of the 21st century still remains open.

Transition in action: toward a social theory of the governance of transitions.

This article explores how a re-interpretation of the socio-technical, socio-ecological and transition design approaches to transition from the point of view of Niklas Luhmann's general systems theory of society. The need to understand and promote changes that include a technological and ecological dimension has led to different approaches, such as socio-technical or socio-environmental approaches, to incorporate links with society. While these approaches often include sociological insights, they rarely offer a general understanding of how these are embedded into society. We need a new environmental sociology that helps catalyze change processes with a collectively reorganized society, empowering more radically transformative actions to change the current structures and processes that have led us to where we are today. The article offers a cross-sectional look at the socio-ecological and socio-technical systems literature, specifically for what concerns their understanding of the 'systems' in transition and how they can be governed, and re-interpret it from the theoretical lens of the deep sociological knowledge, which refers to the profound understanding of social systems and their dynamics, embedded in Luhmann's theory of social systems. From here, we suggest the second-order coupling for a sociologically grounded understanding of the interactions that comprise socio-ecological and socio-technical systems, heterogeneous and almost self-organizing assemblies of social, technical, and natural elements and processes. At the same time, third-order couplings are analyzed, focused on governance, relationships between operations, and structures mediated by a deliberate attempt to ensure coherence and coordination against the autonomy and heterogeneity of socio-techno-ecological systems. Therefore, this manuscript offers a deeper conceptual and methodological understanding of socio-techno-ecological couplings and systems in the context of sustainability transformation and gives insights into its governance.

Communicating science addressing contentious environmental issues: utilizing Luhmann's social systems theory

For complex and socially contentious environmental issues, such as climate change and disease prevention, science communication has proven difficult. As many science communication scholars have determined, education is not the only factor impacting the public's willingness to act upon or even accept scientific information. In this study, we propose using Niklas Luhmann's theory of social systems as a framework for research in science and environmental communication. We argue that by focusing on the functions of relevant social systems, the occurrence of communication conflicts may be explained, and new approaches to overcome communication obstacles can be developed. In this study, we provide examples of the theory's utility by looking at pertinent studies regarding relevant systems integral to addressing climate change and sustainability issues, as well as propose new subjects for exploration.

Peranan Komunikasi Dalam Sistem Sosial : Analisis Teori Niklas Lukman

The theory of communication as autopoiesis proposed by Niklas Luhmann offers a revolutionary perspective in understanding communication in social systems. Luhmann argues that communication is not just a tool for exchanging information, but is an independent process and has autonomous mechanisms to maintain and reproduce itself. This theory combines the concept of autopoiesis which originally came from biology, where a system can produce and maintain its own components through internal interactions. In Luhmann's theory, communication is seen as a basic element of a social system that has the ability to create and reproduce social structures through processes communication itself. Luhmann emphasized that communication occurs through three main elements: information, message, and understanding. This process not only transmits information, but also shapes and constructs social reality. Communication in Luhmann's view is a selective process that involves selecting the information to be communicated, the way the information is conveyed, and how the information is understood by the recipient. Apart from that, the theory of communication as autopoiesis is relevant in the context of modern communication which is increasingly complex and fragmented. In the digital era, where information spreads rapidly and in large quantities, understanding communication as an autopoietic process helps us understand how information is processed, selected, and internalized in social systems. It also helps in understanding the challenges and opportunities that have arisen from developments in communication technologies, such as social media and the internet, which have changed the way we communicate and interact with each other. Overall, Niklas Luhmann's theory of communication as autopoiesis provides a powerful theoretical framework for understanding communication as an independent and dynamic process in social systems. This theory not only provides insight into how communication functions in a social context, but also offers analytical tools for exploring the complexity and dynamics of communication in modern society. By understanding communication through the lens of autopoiesis, we can better capture the essence of the communication process and how it shapes our social reality.

Where George Spencer-Brown went wrong – re-entry recalculated

PurposeThe paper uncovers a mathematical error in George Spencer-Brown's genesis of re-entry. It distinguishes between the two interpretations of re-entry presented in “Laws of Form”: recursive versus sequential. The Indeterminacy inferred by George Spencer-Brown from his recursive genesis of re-entry is refuted in three different ways. The calculation of the Modulator from “Laws of Form” demonstrates that only the sequential interpretation of re-entry is reasonable. This contributes to the demystification of re-entry and enables a deeper understanding. Finally, six differences between the concept of form from “Laws of Form” and Niklas Luhmann's sociological systems theory are presented.Design/methodology/approachMethodologically, the paper uses the ternary logic of discrete mathematics, which extends {0, 1} by “don't care” to {0, 1, -}. George Spencer-Brown's Indeterminicy is refuted by using three different methods: complete induction, Theorems 14 and 15 and the software XBOOLE. For the calculation of the Modulator, the only practical application of re-entry in “Laws of Form”, techniques from automata theory are used.FindingsThe paper reveals a mathematical error in George Spencer-Brown's genesis of the re-entry of “Laws of Form” and refutes the assumption of Indeterminicy. The analysis of the only practical application of re-entry presented by George Spencer-Brown shows that the functioning of this Modulator can only be described correctly with the sequential interpretation of re-entry.Originality/valueThe paper emphasizes the interdisciplinary potential of sociology and information technology and provides methods and tools of discrete mathematics for use in the analysis of the works of George Spencer-Brown and Niklas Luhmann.

Resonance of Climate Crisis News Discourse in Indonesian Online Media: Reflections on Niklas Luhmann's Ecological Communication Theory Perspective

Indonesia, an archipelago significantly vulnerable to the climate crisis, faces numerous natural disasters impacting various sectors. Despite the critical need for public awareness and proactive measures, media coverage of climate crisis issues in Indonesia remains limited. This study investigates the level of resonance in online media reporting on the climate crisis from January to December 2023, focusing on keywords related to climate change, forest fires, and air pollution. The research uses topic modeling and Niklas Luhmann's systems theory to examine how four major Indonesian online media outlets address climate crisis issues. The findings reveal that while kompas.com and detik.com show consistent coverage, ANTARA and CNBC Indonesia place less emphasis on these topics. The study highlights the need for enhanced and more impactful media coverage to raise public awareness and drive meaningful action against the climate crisis. The results underscore the importance of media collaboration with governments, NGOs, and communities to increase the resonance of climate crisis issues in public discourse. Future research should explore the reasons behind the variation in media coverage and its impact on public perception and policy decisions, including the role of social media platforms.

The reality of environment reimagined: Niklas Luhmann and the new ecological paradigm

AbstractThis article delves into the underpinnings of environmental sociology, with a specific focus on the influential contributions of Dunlap and Catton. While acknowledging the increasing societal detachment from the environment, the article questions the projection of this phenomenon onto the structure of social thought. The author contends against dismissing theoretical exemptionalism, advocating for its potential to provide a nuanced understanding of the complex relationship between society and nature. Illustrating this perspective through the lens of Niklas Luhmann's sociological theory, the article demonstrates how theoretical exemptionalism can furnish valuable tools for grappling with environmental issues. Furthermore, it challenges Dunlap and Catton's critique of constructivism, proposing that a moderate form of the latter can shed light on interactions between society and nature. Throughout the discussion, a crucial emphasis is placed on the fundamental distinction between society and its environment, laying the groundwork for a deeper exploration of Luhmann's ontology.

Politization of Islam in Modern Iran: Autopoiesis of Shiite Tradition?

The article examines the development of politicized Shiite Islam in Iran as a type of autopoiesis (N. Luhmann) of this religious tradition. The topic arises from the actualization of the influence of religion on the life of a number of societies that have relied on technological modernization, as well as the importance that the topic of the optimal combination of modernization and traditional values is acquiring today. The purpose of the study is, based on an analysis of the activities of the Shiite clergy, to characterize the uniqueness of the revaluation of the values of Iranian society in the course of the development of modern philosophy and ideology of Shiism. The objectives of the study were: 1) to systematize the existing scientific approaches to the process of politicization of Shiism in the second half of the 20th – early 21st centuries; 2) consider the connection between political processes and the specific theology of Shiism; 3) reveal the dynamics of the relationship between the values of tradition and modernization in the teachings of Shiite religious figures; 4) clarify the specificities of the stages of influence of Imami Islam on the religious and political life of modern Iran. The research was based on theological and scientific writings of Islamic spiritual leaders, their opponents and followers. The key method used was historical-genetic, which made it possible to analyze the formation of Shiism in Iran in the historical and cultural context; and comparative, with the help of which the specifics of the various stages of the autopoietic formation of Iranian Shiism against the background of other denominations of Shiism and Islam in general were clarified. It has been proven that consideration of the path of development of the philosophical and ideological aspects of Shiism theology from the perspective of N. Luhmann's theory makes it possible to trace not only the external, but also the autochthonous foundations of the complex reverses of this religious model of self-awareness of society; as well as identify and characterize the functional specificity and dynamic characteristics of the process of politicization of Shiism in Iran. In modern Iran, theology influences the consciousness of believers, and, as a consequence, social and political processes, and not vice versa, as is commonly believed in relation to modern societies. The role of Imami Islam (Shiites) in the formation of values and behavioral attitudes during the actual structuring of relations in society turns out to be key for Iran. At the same time, however, this theology contains the potential for historical change: the very theological system changes, starting from its own concepts and transforming them. This constructivist approach turns out to be compatible with the emphasis on traditionalism. The logical possibility of such collaboration in building a new type of society is justified within the framework of the development of the theory of legal guardianship.

Political and economic instrumentalisation of science: Towards an extended concept of corruption

AbstractPopular perception holds that science has been distorted by the pressure of expectations of economic utility or political desirability. Grounded in Niklas Luhmann's system theory, this paper examines the interplay of the political, economic and scientific subsystem of society to scrutinise the idea that science has been corrupted by economy and politics. To this end, we extend the notion of corruption beyond the common, predominantly legal meaning. As a result, we identify organisations as loci of corruptions that can occur at the interfaces of economy, politics and law as much as at the interfaces of science, education and economy or science, politics and health. We conclude that further conceptual and empirical research on these and similar cases of corruption is a worthy scientific goal.

The Impossibility and Necessity of Causality in Niklas Luhmann's Theory of Education

AbstractAccording to Niklas Luhmann, causality is both an impossibility and a necessity in education. On the one hand, the task of the teacher is an impossible one, because teaching as communication is a closed system that cannot determine the learning of pupils' psychical system in any causal sense. On the other hand, one cannot practice as a teacher without a belief in causality, i.e., in a causal connection between teaching and learning. In his article “The Child as the Medium of Education,” Luhmann focuses on the enablement of education, despite its impossibility. His answer is that one thing that makes education possible is the emergence of the symbolically generalized medium “the child.” In this article, Lars Qvortrup focuses on Luhmann's understanding of causality. According to Luhmann, causality is not a simple, ontological fact, but the result of the attribution of certain causes to certain effects. The conclusion is that causality as an attribution category — and not causality as an ontological fact — is another thing that makes education possible. Qvortrup also concludes, however, that Luhmann is not alone in criticizing the traditional, mechanical concept of causality. Other contemporary philosophers and sociologists have pointed out that in order to analyze causality in complex social systems, one has to select some causal factors and ignore others. While others do this based on seemingly pure scientific and statistical criteria, Luhmann focuses on attribution as a social construction of causality.