LPS Transport Research Articles

Outer Membrane Proteome of Veillonella parvula: A Diderm Firmicute of the Human Microbiome.

Veillonella parvula is a biofilm-forming commensal found in the lungs, vagina, mouth, and gastro-intestinal tract of humans, yet it may develop into an opportunistic pathogen. Furthermore, the presence of Veillonella has been associated with the development of a healthy immune system in infants. Veillonella belongs to the Negativicutes, a diverse clade of bacteria that represent an evolutionary enigma: they phylogenetically belong to Gram-positive (monoderm) Firmicutes yet maintain an outer membrane (OM) with lipopolysaccharide similar to classic Gram-negative (diderm) bacteria. The OMs of Negativicutes have unique characteristics including the replacement of Braun's lipoprotein by OmpM for tethering the OM to the peptidoglycan. Through phylogenomic analysis, we have recently provided bioinformatic annotation of the Negativicutes diderm cell envelope. We showed that it is a unique type of envelope that was present in the ancestor of present-day Firmicutes and lost multiple times independently in this phylum, giving rise to the monoderm architecture; however, little experimental data is presently available for any Negativicutes cell envelope. Here, we performed the first experimental proteomic characterization of the cell envelope of a diderm Firmicute, producing an OM proteome of V. parvula. We initially conducted a thorough bioinformatics analysis of all 1,844 predicted proteins from V. parvula DSM 2008's genome using 12 different localization prediction programs. These results were complemented by protein extraction with surface exposed (SE) protein tags and by subcellular fractionation, both of which were analyzed by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. The merging of proteomics and bioinformatics results allowed identification of 78 OM proteins. These include a number of receptors for TonB-dependent transport, the main component of the BAM system for OM protein biogenesis (BamA), the Lpt system component LptD, which is responsible for insertion of LPS into the OM, and several copies of the major OmpM protein. The annotation of V. parvula's OM proteome markedly extends previous inferences on the nature of the cell envelope of Negativicutes, including the experimental evidence of a BAM/TAM system for OM protein biogenesis and of a complete Lpt system for LPS transport to the OM. It also provides important information on the role of OM components in the lifestyle of Veillonella, such as a possible gene cluster for O-antigen synthesis and a large number of adhesins. Finally, many OM hypothetical proteins were identified, which are priority targets for further characterization.

Rapid LPS transport during fat absorption in rat small intestine

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS; endotoxin) is a lipophilic pathogenic factor derived from gut Gram‐negative bacteria. Increased serum LPS concentrations are associated with the metabolic syndrome, termed metabolic endotoxemia. Since the origin of circulating LPS is the gut lumen, we studied the mechanisms of LPS transport across the gut mucosa, hypothesizing that transport occurs via known lipid uptake pathways. Since glucagon‐like peptide‐2 (GLP‐2) reduces intestinal solute permeability but enhances fat absorption, we also hypothesized that GLP‐2 affects LPS transport during fat absorption. We thus examined LPS transport mechanisms and the effect of exogenous GLP‐2 on LPS transport in intact intestinal tissues in vitro and in vivo. FITC‐LPS absorption in vivo was quantitated by simultaneously measuring the appearance of FITC‐LPS into the portal vein (PV) and the mesenteric lymph, with or without luminal oleic acid with taurocholate (OA/TCA). We also examined fluorescent dextran 4000 (FD4) or LPS transport from mucosal to serosal solution (m‐to‐s) in Ussing chambered muscle‐stripped intestinal tissues.Bolus intraduodenal infusion of FITC‐LPS (50 μg/ml) with OA/TCA rapidly increased FITC‐LPS appearance into PV, followed by a gradual increase into the lymph, whereas FITC‐LPS alone did not appear on PV or lymph. In Ussing chambered jejunum, luminally‐applied LPS (10 μg/ml) rapidly appeared in the serosal solution with luminal OA/TCA, whereas LPS alone or LPS+TCA was not transported. OA/TCA‐induced LPS m‐to‐s transport in the jejunum was inhibited by luminal pretreatment with the lipid raft inhibitor methyl‐β‐cyclodextrin and the CD36 inhibitor sulfosuccinimidyl oleate, but was enhanced by serosal carbachol and luminal application of the competitive alkaline phosphatase inhibitor glycerol phosphate. Furthermore, FD4 m‐to‐s movement was also enhanced by luminal OA/TCA in the jejunum, whereas lesser effects were observed in the duodenum or ileum. Pretreatment with serosal GLP‐2 (100 nM) reduced OA/TCA‐induced LPS transport, whereas carbachol‐induced LPS transport was not affected.These results suggest that luminal LPS crosses the gut barrier physiologically during fat absorption via lipid raft‐ and CD36‐mediated transport mechanisms, similar to chylomicron transport, and possibly through emptied goblet cells. By reducing lipid raft‐, CD36‐, and chylomicron‐mediated LPS transport, GLP‐2 treatment may be a new therapy for metabolic endotoxemia.Support or Funding InformationSupported by VA Merit Review, NIH R01 DK54221

1087 - Rapid LPS Transport During Long-Chain Fatty Acid Absorption in Rat Small Intestine

1087 - Rapid LPS Transport During Long-Chain Fatty Acid Absorption in Rat Small Intestine

Soybean polar lipids differently impact adipose tissue inflammation and the endotoxin transporters LBP and sCD14 in flaxseed vs. palm oil-rich diets

Obesity and type 2 diabetes are nutritional pathologies, characterized by a subclinical inflammatory state. Endotoxins are now well recognized as an important factor implicated in the onset and maintain of this inflammatory state during fat digestion in high-fat diet. As a preventive strategy, lipid formulation could be optimized to limit these phenomena, notably regarding fatty acid profile and PL emulsifier content. Little is known about soybean polar lipid (SPL) consumption associated to oils rich in saturated FA vs. anti-inflammatory omega-3 FA such as α-linolenic acid on inflammation and metabolic endotoxemia. We then investigated in mice the effect of different synthetic diets enriched with two different oils, palm oil or flaxseed oil and containing or devoid of SPL on adipose tissue inflammation and endotoxin receptors. In both groups containing SPL, adipose tissue (WAT) increased compared with groups devoid of SPL and an induction of MCP-1 and LBP was observed in WAT. However, only the high-fat diet in which flaxseed oil was associated with SPL resulted in both higher WAT inflammation and higher circulating sCD14 in plasma. In conclusion, we have demonstrated that LPS transporters LBP and sCD14 and adipose tissue inflammation can be modulated by SPL in high fat diets differing in oil composition. Notably high-flaxseed oil diet exerts a beneficial metabolic impact, however blunted by PL addition. Our study suggests that nutritional strategies can be envisaged by optimizing dietary lipid sources in manufactured products, including fats/oils and polar lipid emulsifiers, in order to limit the inflammatory impact of palatable foods.

Trapped lipopolysaccharide and LptD intermediates reveal lipopolysaccharide translocation steps across the Escherichia coli outer membrane

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is a main component of the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, which is essential for the vitality of most Gram-negative bacteria and plays a critical role for drug resistance. LptD/E complex forms a N-terminal LPS transport slide, a hydrophobic intramembrane hole and the hydrophilic channel of the barrel, for LPS transport, lipid A insertion and core oligosaccharide and O-antigen polysaccharide translocation, respectively. However, there is no direct evidence to confirm that LptD/E transports LPS from the periplasm to the external leaflet of the outer membrane. By replacing LptD residues with an unnatural amino acid p-benzoyl-L-phenyalanine (pBPA) and UV-photo-cross-linking in E.coli, the translocon and LPS intermediates were obtained at the N-terminal domain, the intramembrane hole, the lumenal gate, the lumen of LptD channel, and the extracellular loop 1 and 4, providing the first direct evidence and “snapshots” to reveal LPS translocation steps across the outer membrane.

Postprandial Endotoxemia Increases with Fat Amount in Obese Men: Inflammatory Impact of LPS Handling

Objectives: LPS, so‐called endotoxins, are now recognized as a triggering factor of the low‐grade inflammation observed in obesity. Recent findings revealed that digestion of a lipid‐rich meal induces a postprandial endotoxemia contributing to increased metabolic risk. However, the possible nutritional modulation of postprandial endotoxemia by various fat amounts remains largely unknown in humans, especially regarding the impact of BMI.Methods: Normal‐weight (NW) and obese men ingested meals containing 10g or 40g fat. Endotoxemia was measured in plasma and chylomicrons during 8h, together with inflammatory mediators and LPS transporters.Results: Chylomicrons increased in all subjects according to ingested fat amount (P<0.01), but only obese men had higher postprandial endotoxemia after 40g fat (P<0.05). Their chylomicrons also got more enriched with LPS than in NW. We observed neither NFkB translocation, nor IL‐6 gene expression in leukocytes, regardless of BMI or meal. In both groups, fat amount did not modify postprandial response of plasma IL‐6. However, postprandial AUC of IL‐6 in obese was higher than in NW subjects (P<0.05) parallel to their higher fasting LPS‐Binding Protein (LBP, P<0.05). In fact, postprandial AUC of IL‐6 was correlated with LBP (P<0.01).ConclusionsFat amount contributes to modulate postprandial endotoxemia in obese subjects. The further endotoxin handling in plasma through chylomicrons and LPS transporters appears to be critical in driving the acute inflammatory response. This can contribute to the long term low‐grade inflammation, especially for high cardiometabolic risk individuals.

Lipopolysaccharide is Inserted into the Outer Membrane through An Intramembrane Hole, A Lumen Gate, and the Lateral Opening of LptD

SummaryLipopolysaccharide (LPS) is essential for the vitality of most Gram-negative bacteria and plays an important role in bacterial multidrug resistance. The LptD/E translocon inserts LPS into the outer leaflet, the mechanism of which is poorly understood. Here, we report mutagenesis, functional assays, and molecular dynamics simulations of the LptD/E complex, which suggest two distinct pathways for the insertion of LPS. The N-terminal domain of LptD comprises a hydrophobic slide that injects the acyl tails of LPS directly into the outer membrane through an intramembrane hole, while the core oligosaccharide and O-antigen pass a lumen gate that triggers the unzipping of the lateral opening between strands β1C and β26C of the barrel of LptD, to finalize LPS insertion. Mutation of the LPS transport related residues or block of the LPS transport pathways results in the deaths of Escherichia coli. These findings are important for the development of novel antibiotics.

Dissecting Escherichia coli outer membrane biogenesis using differential proteomics.

The cell envelope of Gram-negative bacteria is a complex multi-layered structure comprising an inner cytoplasmic membrane and an additional asymmetric lipid bilayer, the outer membrane, which functions as a selective permeability barrier and is essential for viability. Lipopolysaccharide, an essential glycolipid located in the outer leaflet of the outer membrane, greatly contributes to the peculiar properties exhibited by the outer membrane. This complex molecule is transported to the cell surface by a molecular machine composed of seven essential proteins LptABCDEFG that form a transenvelope complex and function as a single device. While advances in understanding the mechanisms that govern the biogenesis of the cell envelope have been recently made, only few studies are available on how bacterial cells respond to severe envelope biogenesis defects on a global scale. Here we report the use of differential proteomics based on Multidimensional Protein Identification Technology (MudPIT) to investigate how Escherichia coli cells respond to a block of lipopolysaccharide transport to the outer membrane. We analysed the envelope proteome of a lptC conditional mutant grown under permissive and non permissive conditions and identified 123 proteins whose level is modulated upon LptC depletion. Most such proteins belong to pathways implicated in cell envelope biogenesis, peptidoglycan remodelling, cell division and protein folding. Overall these data contribute to our understanding on how E. coli cells respond to LPS transport defects to restore outer membrane functionality.

Decoupling catalytic activity from biological function of the ATPase that powers lipopolysaccharide transport

The cell surface of Gram-negative bacteria contains lipopolysaccharides (LPS), which provide a barrier against the entry of many antibiotics. LPS assembly involves a multiprotein LPS transport (Lpt) complex that spans from the cytoplasm to the outer membrane. In this complex, an unusual ATP-binding cassette transporter is thought to power the extraction of LPS from the outer leaflet of the cytoplasmic membrane and its transport across the cell envelope. We introduce changes into the nucleotide-binding domain, LptB, that inactivate transporter function in vivo. We characterize these residues using biochemical experiments combined with high-resolution crystal structures of LptB pre- and post-ATP hydrolysis and suggest a role for an active site residue in phosphate exit. We also identify a conserved residue that is not required for ATPase activity but is essential for interaction with the transmembrane components. Our studies establish the essentiality of ATP hydrolysis by LptB to power LPS transport in cells and suggest strategies to inhibit transporter function away from the LptB active site.

Ght Protein of Neisseria meningitidis Is Involved in the Regulation of Lipopolysaccharide Biosynthesis

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is a major component of the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria and is responsible for the barrier function of this membrane. A ght mutant of Neisseria meningitidis that showed increased sensitivity to hydrophobic toxic compounds, suggesting a breach in this permeability barrier, was previously described. Here, we assessed whether this phenotype was possibly caused by a defect in LPS transport or synthesis. The total amount of LPS appeared to be drastically reduced in a ght mutant, but the residual LPS was still detected at the cell surface, suggesting that LPS transport was not impaired. The ght mutant was rapidly overgrown by pseudorevertants that produced normal levels of LPS. Genetic analysis of these pseudorevertants revealed that the lpxC gene, which encodes a key enzyme in LPS synthesis, was fused to the promoter of the upstream-located pilE gene, resulting in severe lpxC overexpression. Analysis of phoA and lacZ gene fusions indicated that Ght is an inner membrane protein with an N-terminal membrane anchor and its bulk located in the cytoplasm, where it could potentially interact with LpxC. Cell fractionation experiments indeed indicated that Ght tethers LpxC to the membrane. We suggest that Ght regulates LPS biosynthesis by affecting the activity of LpxC. Possibly, this mechanism acts in the previously observed feedback inhibition of LPS synthesis that occurs when LPS transport is hampered.

Characterization of lipopolysaccharide transport protein complex

Abstract Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is an essential component of the outer membranes (OM) of most Gram-negative bacteria, which plays a crucial role in protection of the bacteria from toxic compounds and harsh conditions. The LPS is biosynthesized at the cytoplasmic side of inner membrane (IM), and then transported across the aqueous periplasmic compartment and assembled correctly at the outer membrane. This process is accomplished by seven LPS transport proteins (LptA-G), but the transport mechanism remains poorly understood. Here, we present findings by pull down assays in which the periplasmic component LptA interacts with both the IM complex LptBFGC and the OM complex LptDE in vitro, but not with complex LptBFG. Using purified Lpt proteins, we have successfully reconstituted the seven transport proteins as a complex in vitro. In addition, the LptC may play an essential role in regulating the conformation of LptBFG to secure the lipopolysaccharide from the inner membrane. Our results contribute to the understanding of lipopolysaccharide transport mechanism and will provide a platform to study the detailed mechanism of the LPS transport in vitro.

Apolipoprotein A-I as a Carrier of Lipopolysaccharide into Rat Hepatocytes

Apolipoprotein A-I-mediated transport of LPS into isolated rat hepatocytes was demonstrated by means of fluorescent microscopy and spectrofluorometry. The efficiency of intracellular endotoxin transport in a complex with apolipoprotein A-I significantly exceeded the absorption of LPS without this carrier. Our results suggest that the mechanism of the anti-inflammatory effect of HDL and apolipoprotein A-I can be related to alternative pathway for metabolic degradation of this endotoxin with the involvement of lipoprotein receptors.

Oil composition of high-fat diet affects metabolic inflammation differently in connection with endotoxin receptors in mice

Low-grade inflammation observed in obesity is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Recent studies revealed that this would be linked to gut-derived endotoxemia during fat digestion in high-fat diets, but nothing is known about the effect of lipid composition. The study was designed to test the impact of oil composition of high-fat diets on endotoxin metabolism and inflammation in mice. C57/Bl6 mice were fed for 8 wk with chow or isocaloric isolipidic diets enriched with oils differing in fatty acid composition: milk fat, palm oil, rapeseed oil, or sunflower oil. In vitro, adipocytes (3T3-L1) were stimulated or not with lipopolysaccharide (LPS; endotoxin) and incubated with different fatty acids. In mice, the palm group presented the highest level of IL-6 in plasma (P < 0.01) together with the highest expression in adipose tissue of IL-1β and of LPS-sensing TLR4 and CD14 (P < 0.05). The higher inflammation in the palm group was correlated with a greater ratio of LPS-binding protein (LBP)/sCD14 in plasma (P < 0.05). The rapeseed group resulted in higher sCD14 than the palm group, which was associated with lower inflammation in both plasma and adipose tissue despite higher plasma endotoxemia. Taken together, our results reveal that the palm oil-based diet resulted in the most active transport of LPS toward tissues via high LBP and low sCD14 and the greatest inflammatory outcomes. In contrast, a rapeseed oil-based diet seemed to result in an endotoxin metabolism driven toward less inflammatory pathways. This shows that dietary fat composition can contribute to modulate the onset of low-grade inflammation through the quality of endotoxin receptors.

New Insights into the Lpt Machinery for Lipopolysaccharide Transport to the Cell Surface: LptA-LptC Interaction and LptA Stability as Sensors of a Properly Assembled Transenvelope Complex

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is a major glycolipid present in the outer membrane (OM) of Gram-negative bacteria. The peculiar permeability barrier of the OM is due to the presence of LPS at the outer leaflet of this membrane that prevents many toxic compounds from entering the cell. In Escherichia coli LPS synthesized inside the cell is first translocated over the inner membrane (IM) by the essential MsbA flippase; then, seven essential Lpt proteins located in the IM (LptBCDF), in the periplasm (LptA), and in the OM (LptDE) are responsible for LPS transport across the periplasmic space and its assembly at the cell surface. The Lpt proteins constitute a transenvelope complex spanning IM and OM that appears to operate as a single device. We show here that in vivo LptA and LptC physically interact, forming a stable complex and, based on the analysis of loss-of-function mutations in LptC, we suggest that the C-terminal region of LptC is implicated in LptA binding. Moreover, we show that defects in Lpt components of either IM or OM result in LptA degradation; thus, LptA abundance in the cell appears to be a marker of properly bridged IM and OM. Collectively, our data support the recently proposed transenvelope model for LPS transport.

Periplasmic orientation of nascent lipid A in the inner membrane of an Escherichia coli LptA mutant

The core-lipid A domain of Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is synthesized on the inner surface of the inner membrane (IM) and flipped to its outer surface by the ABC transporter MsbA. Recent studies with deletion mutants implicate the periplasmic protein LptA, the cytosolic protein LptB, and the IM proteins LptC, LptF, and LptG in the subsequent transport of nascent LPS to the outer membrane (OM), where the LptD/LptE complex flips LPS to the outer surface. We have isolated a temperature-sensitive mutant (MB1) harboring the S22C and Q111P substitutions in LptA. MB1 stops growing after 30 min at 42 degrees C. (32)P(i) and [(35)S]methionine labeling show that export of newly synthesized phospholipids and proteins is not severely impaired, but export of LPS is defective. Using the lipid A 1-phosphatase LpxE as a periplasmic IM marker and the lipid A 3-O-deacylase PagL as an OM marker, we show that core-lipid A reaches the periplasmic side of the IM at 42 degrees C in MB1 but not the outer surface of the OM. Electron microscopy of MB1 reveals dense periplasmic material and a smooth OM at 42 degrees C, consistent with a role for LptA in shuttling LPS across the periplasm.

Functional Analysis of the Protein Machinery Required for Transport of Lipopolysaccharide to the Outer Membrane of Escherichia coli

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is an essential component of the outer membrane (OM) in most gram-negative bacteria, and its structure and biosynthetic pathway are well known. Nevertheless, the mechanisms of transport and assembly of this molecule at the cell surface are poorly understood. The inner membrane (IM) transport protein MsbA is responsible for flipping LPS across the IM. Additional components of the LPS transport machinery downstream of MsbA have been identified, including the OM protein complex LptD/LptE (formerly Imp/RlpB), the periplasmic LptA protein, the IM-associated cytoplasmic ATP binding cassette protein LptB, and LptC (formerly YrbK), an essential IM component of the LPS transport machinery characterized in this work. Here we show that depletion of any of the proteins mentioned above leads to common phenotypes, including (i) the presence of abnormal membrane structures in the periplasm, (ii) accumulation of de novo-synthesized LPS in two membrane fractions with lower density than the OM, and (iii) accumulation of a modified LPS, which is ligated to repeating units of colanic acid in the outer leaflet of the IM. Our results suggest that LptA, LptB, LptC, LptD, and LptE operate in the LPS assembly pathway and, together with other as-yet-unidentified components, could be part of a complex devoted to the transport of LPS from the periplasmic surface of the IM to the OM. Moreover, the location of at least one of these five proteins in every cellular compartment suggests a model for how the LPS assembly pathway is organized and ordered in space.

Bacterial lipopolysaccharide induces expression of ABCA1 but not ABCG1 via an LXR-independent pathway

Two ATP-binding cassette transporter proteins, ABCA1 and ABCG1, may mediate an active efflux of cellular cholesterol and phospholipids. They are ubiquitously expressed and are subject to regulation by cholesterol loading or by treatment with agents that activate the nuclear hormone receptor LXR. Earlier studies in both primates and non-primates reported that treatment with endotoxin (bacterial lipopolysaccharide, LPS) reduces plasma levels of HDL cholesterol. To determine if such HDL reduction correlates with a change in ABCA1 or ABCG1 expression, their expressions were measured in THP-1 monocytes and mice treated with LPS. LPS treatment leads to a rapid, dose-dependent increase of ABCA1 but not ABCG1 mRNA expression. Analysis of mouse livers showed that LPS treatment decreases expression of CYP7A, another target gene of LXR. When THP-1 cells were transfected with the ABCA1 promoter construct (-928 to +101 bp), promoter activity was significantly increased by treatment of 22(R)-hydroxycholesterol but not by LPS. Together, these studies show that LPS regulates ABCA1 expression through an LXR-independent mechanism. Further studies showed that treatment with Rhodobacter sphaeroiders LPS, an LPS antagonist, or PD169316, a specific p38 MAP kinase inhibitor, prevented the induction of ABCA1 by LPS. Therefore, this suggests that both transport of LPS from the plasma membrane to an intracellular site and activation of p38 MAP kinase are involved in the LPS-mediated induction of ABCA1.

Effect of ischemia on intestinal permeability of lipopolysaccharides.

The enteral absorption of endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide, LPS) was studied in vitro and in vivo. The absorption of fluorescence (FITC) labelled LPS was investigated by uptake studies with rabbit jejunal brush-border membrane vesicles (BBMV), the human intestinal cell line Caco-2 and in rats. FITC-LPS from Salmonella typhimurium was taken up into BBMV in a dose-dependent manner. Uptake was neither pH- nor Na+-dependent, nor could it be inhibited by unlabelled LPS. 74.5% of vesicle-associated fluorescence was due to adhesion to the vesicular membranes, 25.5% was taken up into an osmotically-sensitive space. Transport of LPS across Caco-2 cell monolayers was dose-dependent. The permeation rate increased significantly under ischemic conditions, i.e. when the cells were incubated under oxygen-depleted conditions. However, no significant differences in transepithelial electrical resistances were observed between oxygen depleted and control cells. The release of lactate dehydrogenase was only marginally different from control cells, indicating cell integrity. In situ, after gut ischemia, a significantly increased uptake of fluorescent LPS was observed by fluorescence laser scanning microscopy. Conclusion LPS is taken up by the intestinal mucosa, predominantly by passive transcellular diffusion. Under ischemic conditions, the permeability of LPS is increased mainly by an enhanced paracellular permeability and epithelial destruction. The findings partly explain the clinically observed development of multiorgan system failure after temporary malperfusion of the gut during major vascular surgery or thromboembolism.

Soluble CD14 mediates efflux of phospholipids from cells.

Soluble CD14 (sCD14), a 55-kDa glycoprotein found in plasma, has been shown to act as a shuttle for bacterial LPS and phospholipids, transporting LPS and phospholipid monomers from LPS aggregates or liposomes to high density lipoprotein particles. sCD14 has also been shown to mediate the transport of LPS and phosphatidylinositol into cells. Here we show that sCD14 mediates not only the influx but also the efflux of cellular phospholipids. Addition of sCD14 enhanced efflux of cellular phospholipids labeled with [(3)H]palmitic acid, [(3)H]oleic acid, or [(3)H]choline chloride from differentiated THP-1 monocytic cells. Efflux was dependent on the concentration of sCD14 added and was essentially complete in 30 min. The role of membrane-bound CD14 (mCD14) in lipid efflux was assessed using matched pairs of cell lines that express or fail to express this protein. While efflux was very dependent on mCD14 in U373 cells, it was not dependent on mCD14 in Chinese hamster ovary cells, suggesting a role for additional cellular proteins in determining the pathway of phospholipid efflux. A deletion mutant of sCD14 lacking the LPS binding site had less ability to efflux phospholipids than intact sCD14, suggesting that this site is needed for CD14 to serve in phospholipid transport. [(3)H]Palmitate-labeled lipids released by sCD14 were precipitated with anti-CD14 then analyzed by HPLC. Phosphatidylcholine was the dominant phospholipid exported and bound to sCD14. These results demonstrate that sCD14 mediates efflux of phospholipids from cells and suggest that sCD14 contributes to phospholipid transport in blood.

The Charge of Endotoxin Molecules Influences Their Conformation and IL-6-Inducing Capacity

The activation of cells by endotoxin (LPS) is one of the early host responses to infections with Gram-negative bacteria. The lipid A part of LPS molecules is known to represent the endotoxic principle; however, the specific requirements for the expression of biologic activity are still not fully understood. We previously found that a specific molecular conformation (endotoxic conformation) is a prerequisite for lipid A to be biologically active. In this study, we have investigated the interdependence of molecular charge and conformation of natural and chemically modified LPS and lipid A and its transport and intercalation into phospholipid membranes mediated by human LPS-binding protein, as well as IL-6 production after stimulation of whole blood or PBMCs. We found that the number, nature, and location of negative charges strongly modulate the molecular conformation of endotoxin. In addition, the LPS-binding protein-mediated transport of LPS into phospholipid membranes depends on the presence of net negative charge, yet charge is only a necessary, but not a sufficient, prerequisite for transport and intercalation. The biologic activity is determined mainly by the molecular conformation: only conical molecules are highly biologically active, whereas cylindrical ones are largely inactive. We could demonstrate that the net negative charge of the lipid A component and its distribution within the hydrophilic headgroup strongly influence the molecular conformation and, therefore, also the biologic activity.