Low Self-esteem Individuals Research Articles

Social threat appeals in commercial advertising: The moderating impact of perceived level of self-efficacy and self-esteem on advertising effectiveness

AbstractThis study investigates the impact of the level of fear evoked by an advertisement (for deodorant) framing a threatening social situation. Where the effectiveness of threat appeals has been investigated extensively in health communication, this study focuses on the impact of social threat appeals in a commercial setting. The study investigates the moderating impact of self-esteem on the interaction effect between the level of fear (evoked by a social threat ad) and perceived level of self-efficacy on brand attitude and purchase intention. Results show that for high self-esteem individuals fear evoked by a social threat is effective only when perceived self-efficacy is increased (in line with the EPPM). However, for low self-esteem individuals, high versus low perceived self-efficacy does not influence brand attitude and purchase intention in case of a social threat appeal, but perceived self-efficacy does increase the effectiveness of appeals in which a positive social situation is shown.

The good, the bad, and the risky

Social risk interacts with self-esteem to predict relationship-initiation motivation and behavior. However, because socially risky situations afford both rewards and costs, it is unclear which affordance is responsible for these effects. Two experiments primed social rewards or costs within different relationship-initiation contexts and then evaluated participants’ relationship-initiation motivation and behavior. Results revealed that global self-esteem regulates responses to both affordances. When social rewards were primed, lower self-esteem individuals (LSEs) exhibited stronger relationship-initiation motivation than higher self-esteem individuals (HSEs), whereas the reverse was true when social costs were primed. Furthermore, LSEs exhibited the strongest relationship-initiation motivation when rewards were primed, whereas HSEs exhibited the strongest relationship-initiation motivation and used more successful relationship-initiation behaviors when costs were primed. This pattern of results suggests a complex association between social affordances and self-esteem during relationship initiation that is not predicted or explained by current theoretical models and thus deserves further empirical attention.

Event-related potentials indicate low self-esteem individuals give enhanced attention to disgusted faces after being ostracized

Event-related potentials indicate low self-esteem individuals give enhanced attention to disgusted faces after being ostracized

Warming Up and Cooling Down: Self-Esteem and Behavioral Responses to Social Threat During Relationship Initiation

Social threats during relationship initiation often cause people to engage in cold behaviors that bring about rejection. However, interpersonal risk-regulation theory suggests that such processes will be moderated by global self-esteem. In two experiments that manipulated the threat of rejection, single participants communicated via video camera with an opposite-sex interaction partner (actually a confederate). As expected, social threat caused higher self-esteem individuals (HSEs) to exhibit a warming-up behavioral response but caused lower self-esteem individuals (LSEs) to exhibit a cooling-down behavioral response, according to both observer-reports and self-reports, which in turn led observers to like HSEs more than LSEs. Furthermore, these effects were independent of similar, previously documented, interpersonal risk-regulation effects on participants' perceptions of acceptance from the confederate.

Electrophysiological correlates of implicit valenced self-processing in high vs. low self-esteem individuals

We provide the first high-temporal resolution account of the self-esteem implicit association test (IAT; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000) to highlight important similarities and differences between the cognitive processes corresponding to implicit valenced self-processing in high vs. low self-esteem individuals. We divided individuals into high and low self-esteem groups based on the Rosenberg self-esteem scale (Rosenberg, 1965) and administered the self-esteem IAT while recording electroencephalographic data. We show that the P2 captured group (high vs. low self-esteem) differences, the N250 and the late parietal positivity (LPP) captured differences corresponding to category pairing (self/positive vs. self/negative pairing), and the N1, P2, and P300–400 components captured interactions between self-esteem groups and whether the self was paired with positive or negative categories in the IAT. Overall, both high and low self-esteem groups were sensitive to the distinction between positive and negative information in relation to the self (me/negative generally displayed larger event-related potential amplitudes than me/positive), but for high self-esteem individuals, this difference was generally larger, earlier, and most pronounced over left-hemisphere electrodes. These electrophysiological differences may reflect differences in attentional resources devoted to teasing apart these two oppositely valenced associations. High self-esteem individuals appear to devote more automatic (early) attentional resources to strengthen the distinction between positively or negatively valenced information in relation to the self.

You can't always give what you want: the challenge of providing social support to low self-esteem individuals.

It can be challenging for support providers to facilitate effective social support interactions even when they have the best intentions. In the current article, we examine some reasons for this difficulty, with a focus on support recipients' self-esteem as a crucial variable. We predicted that recipients' receptiveness to support would be influenced by both support strategy and recipient self-esteem and that receptiveness in turn would impact providers' perceived caregiving efficacy and relationship quality. Study 1 (hypothetical scenarios), Study 2 (confederate interaction), and Study 3 (reports of recently received support) showed that individuals with low self-esteem (LSEs) are less receptive than are individuals with high self-esteem (HSEs) to support that positively reframes their experience but are equally receptive to support that validates their negative feelings. In Study 4, providers demonstrated some knowledge that positive reframing would be less helpful to LSEs than to HSEs but indicated equal intention to give such support. Study 5 showed that, in a real interaction, friends were indeed equally likely to offer positive reframing to both LSEs and HSEs but were less likely to offer validation to LSEs. LSEs were less accepting of such support, and in turn providers felt worse about the interaction, about themselves, and about their friendship more broadly. Study 6 confirmed that recipients' receptivity to support directly influenced providers' experience of a support interaction as well as their self- and relationship evaluations. The findings illustrate how well-meaning support attempts that do not match recipients' particular preferences may be detrimental to both members of the dyad.

Using Self-handicaps to Protect Self-esteem: Young Peoples’ Responses to Evaluative Threat in Sport

The purpose of this investigation was to examine the relationship between self-esteem, certainty of self-esteem and trait self-handicapping and the use of self-avowals of performance disruption. A random sample of young people for whom sport was highly self-relevant, were randomly allocated to a condition that exposed them to unexplained failure on a sport test or a non-evaluative condition. Results showed that low self-esteem individuals who experienced unexpected failure significantly reported more performance disruption as a self-handicap. Trait self-handicapping, certainty of self-esteem and gender were not predictors of self-handicapping. Recommendations for teachers and coaches are discussed.

Using Differentiated Brands to Deflect Exclusion and Protect Inclusion: The Moderating Role of Self-Esteem on Attachment to Differentiated Brands

While a substantial body of research suggests that belongingness needs motivate consumers to use brands to assimilate with a reference group, relatively less attention has been devoted to understanding when and why consumers use brands to differentiate themselves from the group. The current research fills this gap in the literature and identifies two ways individuals can differentiate themselves from the group through the use of brands: horizontal and vertical differentiation. Horizontal brands offer differentiation through the expression of personality, taste, traits, and so forth, whereas vertical brands offer differentiation by conferring status or demonstrating one's superiority to others in a group. The results reveal that under social exclusion (inclusion), low self-esteem consumers increase perceptions of group heterogeneity (seek to protect their future belongingness) and subsequently increase their attachment to horizontal (vertical) brands. Overall, the results suggest that the belongingness goals of low self-esteem individuals drive such seemingly contradictory behaviors.

Responsive Low Self-Esteem: Low Explicit Self-Esteem, Implicit Self-Esteem, and Reactions to Performance Outcomes

Whereas some research has found that low self-esteem individuals (LSEs) with high implicit self-esteem fare better psychologically than those with low implicit self-esteem, other research has found they fare worse. In an attempt to integrate and extend this work, we propose that the well-being of LSEs with high implicit self-esteem is responsive to outcomes in important domains; they are more debilitated than LSEs with low implicit self-esteem by negative outcomes but benefit more from positive outcomes. In Study 1, LSEs with high implicit self-esteem had higher state self-esteem than those with low implicit self-esteem after positive feedback. In Study 2, LSEs with high implicit self-esteem had higher well-being (higher trait self-esteem and less severe depressive symptoms) than LSEs with low implicit self-esteem two weeks after receiving high grades, but lower well-being after receiving low grades. Thus, individuals with discrepant low self-esteem might be aptly characterized as having responsive self-esteem.

You Don’t Really Love Me, Do You? Negative Effects of Imagine-Other Perspective-Taking on Lower Self-Esteem Individuals’ Relationship Well-Being

Two studies demonstrated that active efforts to appreciate a romantic partner's unique point of view (imagine-other perspective-taking) lead individuals lower in self-esteem (LSEs) to feel less loved by their partner and less satisfied with their relationship as a result. These effects were evident regardless of whether individuals' perspective-taking efforts involved reflecting specifically on a disagreement with their partner (Study 2) or not (Study 1). The studies thus identify a new path through which perspective-taking efforts can detract from relational well-being, one to which LSEs are uniquely vulnerable. Results from an open-ended thought-listing task administered in Study 2 confirmed that increased cognitive energy LSEs devoted to drawing (negative) metaperceptual inferences about their partner's evaluation of them contributed to the negative effect of imagine-other perspective-taking on their perceived regard. No such effects were evident for individuals higher in self-esteem, and imagine-self perspective-taking instead exerted a general positive influence on individuals' evaluations of their partner.

The Bold and the Bashful

Successful romantic relationship initiation often requires bold and direct action, but direct action can increase the possibility of rejection. These dual possible outcomes create interpersonal risk, which should prompt self-esteem differences in behavior. When risk is present, lower self-esteem individuals, who prefer to avoid social costs, will be less likely to use direct initiation behaviors than higher self-esteem individuals, who prefer to approach social rewards. However, eliminate social risk and these self-esteem differences in behavior will be similarly eliminated. Furthermore, reflecting gender-role prescriptions, we expected these effects to be evident among men, but not women. We test these hypotheses in a naturalistic study assessing retrospective behavioral reports and in a controlled laboratory experiment using behavioral coding to assess actual initiation behavior. Results were consistent with our hypotheses, revealing that gender moderated the links between self-esteem, risk, and initiation behavior in a manner consistent with gender roles.

Self-esteem Moderates the Effects of Daily Rejection on Health and Well-being

A daily diary methodology was used to investigate the effects of rejection on daily health and well-being as well as the moderating role of self-esteem. Participants completed an online diary for two weeks, reporting on rejection, mental well-being/resources, risky health behaviors, and health-related outcomes. Overall, daily rejection was associated with decreases in mental well-being/resources but not with health behaviors or health-related outcomes. Additionally, self-esteem played an important moderating role. On high rejection days low self-esteem individuals were more likely to engage in risky health behaviors, and on the day following a high rejection day they reported decrements in health and well-being. Discussion centers on possible self-regulatory explanations for these findings and implications for the health of individuals with low self-esteem.

Effects of Self-Esteem on Self-Face Recognition: An Eye Movement Study

In this study, effects of self-esteem on self-faces recognition toward four types of faces were evaluated by eye movements tracking within a self-face recognition paradigm. Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale (RSES) was used to assess self-esteem level of participants, high (n = 16) and low (n = 16) self-esteem undergraduates participated in it. Participants completed a self-face recognition task wherein eye movements were recorded during the presentation of self-face, partner’s face, famous face and stranger face. Findings showed that high self-esteem group pay more attention to self-face, partner’ face and famous face than unfamiliar face; low self-esteem individuals, however, pay the same attention to all categories. These results not only enriched the research about the self-esteem, but also the self-face recognition.

Low self-esteem and the neural basis of attentional bias for social rejection cues: Evidence from the N2pc ERP component

Previous studies have indicated that individuals with low self-esteem show an attentional bias toward information concerning social rejection. The present study used event-related potentials (ERPs) to investigate whether task-irrelevant rejection cues could capture the visuo-spatial attention of low self-esteem individuals during a demanding visual detection task. The N2pc ERP component was measured as an index of the allocation of spatial attention. Results revealed that rejection cues induced greater N2pc component responses among individuals with low levels of self-esteem than for those with high levels of self-esteem. These results suggest that task-irrelevant rejection cues are likely to capture the attention of individuals with low self-esteem but not those with high self-esteem. These findings provide direct electrophysiological support for the idea that individuals with low levels of self-esteem show an attentional bias for cues related to social rejection.

Effects of self-esteem on electrophysiological correlates of easy and difficult math

The current study investigated the effects of easy versus difficult math on event-related potentials as a function of self-esteem in 28 undergraduate students. First, it was found that participants responded much more rapidly to an easy task. Second, the amplitude of P2 (150–300 ms) was more positive amplified in low self-esteem participants when compared to high self-esteem participants. Third, the difficult task elicited a greater N2 (300–450 ms) component than the easy task, but only in the low self-esteem participants. Finally, the easy task elicited a greater late positive component (LPC: 450–600 ms) compared with the difficult task and the difficult task elicited a greater LPC (900–1200 ms) components compared with the easy task separately, which were consistent with behavioral reaction times. We speculate that the difficult math might have induced more negative emotions in subjects with low self-esteem, and that low self-esteem individuals might be more susceptible to interpret the difficult task as threatening.

Effect of Self-awareness on Negative Affect Among Individuals with Discrepant Low Self-esteem

Past research suggests that individuals with discrepant low self-esteem (low explicit and high implicit self-esteem) may hold themselves against higher standards and judge themselves more critically when they fall short of those standards (Zeigler-Hill & Terry, 2007). We postulated that for discrepant low self-esteem individuals, self-awareness would activate their stringent standards and the fact that they have failed to meet those standards, thereby increasing negative affect. In this study, 144 participants completed implicit and explicit self-esteem measures, and half were then made to be self-aware by completing a task with a mirror in front of them for 3 minutes. We found that self-awareness increased negative affect among discrepant low self-esteem participants.

Shut Your Eyes and Think of Something Else: Self-Esteem and Avoidance when Dealing with Counter-Attitudinal Information

Two studies investigated the hypothesis that people with low self-esteem are more inclined to avoid information that is incongruent with value-relevant attitudes than people with higher levels of self-esteem. In Study 1 participants had the opportunity to postpone and potentially avoid reading a counter-attitudinal article. Results confirmed our prediction. Results of Study 2 indicated that low self-esteem participants performed better than high self-esteem participants on a distracting task when confronted with the prospect to receive counter-attitudinal information. These findings show that low self-esteem individuals tend to avoid information that is incongruent with an attitude that is strongly linked to their self-concept.

Alleviating Interpersonal Suspicions of Low Self-Esteem Individuals: Negativity as Honesty Credentials

Individuals with low self-esteem (LSEs) suspect that their relationship partners feign positive sentiments about them and conceal negative sentiments. In two studies, the authors tested a negativity-as-honesty-credentials model, which posits that these authenticity doubts are alleviated when LSEs receive some expressions of negativity from partners. LSEs' authenticity doubts were reduced and their acceptance of their partners' praise was increased when they received frequent criticism from partners (Study 1). In addition, an experimental manipulation of relationship partners' negative feedback decreased LSEs' authenticity doubts with regard to that feedback and with regard to subsequent feedback (Study 2). However, negative feedback across multiple domains (Study 1) or in high investment domains (Studies 1 and 2) was associated with negative affective and interpersonal responses. Results suggest that receiving a modicum of negativity in worthless domains may maintain LSEs' trust in partners' honesty while avoiding negative interpersonal and affective responses. Results also replicate prior findings suggesting that authenticity doubts are associated with negative affective and interpersonal responses.

Imagining thin: Why vanity sizing works

Vanity sizing, the practice of clothing manufacturers, whereby smaller size labels are used on clothes than what the clothes actually are, has become very common. Apparently, it helps sell clothes—women prefer small size clothing labels to large ones. We propose and demonstrate that smaller size labels evoke more positive self-related mental imagery. Thus, consumers imagine themselves more positively (thinner) with a vanity sized size-6 pant versus a size-8 pant. We also show that appearance self-esteem moderates the (mediating) effect of imagery on vanity sizing effectiveness—while vanity sizing evokes more positive mental imagery for both low and high appearance self-esteem individuals, the effect of the positive imagery on clothing preference is significant (only) for people with low appearance self-esteem, supported by the theory of compensatory self-enhancement.Our suggestion of simple marketing communications affecting valence of imagery and consequent product evaluation have implications for many other marketing domains.

Self-esteem is a shared relationship resource: Additive effects of dating partners’ self-esteem levels predict relationship quality

Though self-esteem is known to positively impact individuals’ romantic relationship outcomes and those of their partners, the interactive nature of both partners’ self-esteem levels has not been systematically investigated. Using actor–partner interdependence model analyses we estimated actor, partner, and four types of dyadic effects of self-esteem on relationship quality in a sample of over 500 heterosexual dating couples. Lower self-esteem individuals and their partners reported lower satisfaction and commitment to their relationships than did higher self-esteem individuals and their partners. An additive effect whereby both partners’ self-esteem levels combine to predict relationship quality best described the dyadic effects. Results highlight the importance of considering the interactive nature of individual characteristics in dyadic research.