Lower-order Factors Research Articles

Anxiety sensitivity and the five-factor model of personality

Relations between anxiety sensitivity (AS) and the higher-order and lower-order dimensions of the `Big Five' model of personality were examined in 317 university students. AS was significantly associated with a number of personality domains and facets of the NEO-PI-R. Regression analyses indicated that only the higher-order domains of neuroticism and extraversion (negatively) and the lower-order N facets of anxiety and self-consciousness, significantly predicted AS. Three lower-order factors within AS were identified and were also compared to NEO-PI-R domains and facets. In a hierarchical regression, the three AS factors significantly predicted variance in a measure of panic-related anxiety after the effects of the six N facets were statistically controlled. Results are discussed in the context of previous work with a Big Three taxonomy of personality and implications for understanding the nature and possible origins of AS are outlined.

Exploratory and confirmatory factor analytic investigations of the Illness Attitudes Scale in a nonclinical sample

The Illness Attitudes Scale (IAS) assesses fears, beliefs and attitudes associated with hypochondriasis [Kellner, R. (1986). Somatization and hypochondriasis. New York: Praeger Publishers.]. Recent factor analytic investigations of the IAS in non-clinical samples have suggested a number of different factor solutions. In study 1, we used principal components analysis with both orthogonal and oblique rotation to better explore the structure of this measure. Using a random selection of 390 participants from a larger pool of 780, a five-factor solution was identified: (1) fear of illness, death, disease and pain, (2) effects of symptoms, (3) treatment experiences, (4) disease conviction and (5) health habits. In study 2, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) of responses from the remaining 390 students evaluated: (a) a single-factor model, (b) Kellner's original nine-factor model, (c) a four-factor model proposed by Ferguson and Daniel [Ferguson, E. & Daniel, E. (1995). The Illness Attitudes Scale (IAS): a psychometric evaluation on a nonclinical population. Personality and Individual Differences, 18, 463–469.], (d) a different four-factor model proposed by Stewart and Watt [Stewart, S. H. & Watt, M. C. (1998). A psychometric investigation of the Illness Attitudes Scale (IAS) in a nonclinical young adult sample. Submitted for publication.] and (e) the five-factor model derived in study 1. Of these models, greatest support was obtained for our five-factor model. However, it was also clear that this model could be improved. Based on the results of the CFA, as well as previous research and theoretical considerations, we tested a revised model in which the health habits factor was deleted. Analysis of the revised model showed that it received the greatest support and could be conceptualized as either four distinct factors or as hierarchical in nature, with four lower-order factors loading on a single higher-order factor. Future directions for research as well as suggestions for scoring and using the IAS with nonclinical samples are discussed.

The State--Trait Anxiety Inventory, Trait version: structure and content re-examined

Although the State–Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) is a popular measure of anxiety, some previous research suggests that the trait scale may assess depression, as well as anxiety. The factor structure of the trait items was initially examined using factor analytic procedures. Confirmatory factor analytic methods suggested that a hierarchical solution best fit the data, with one overall factor and two lower order factors. The lower order subscales created from this factor solution were examined in a sample of individuals diagnosed with an anxiety disorder. Overall, the results offered good support for the notion that the trait scale of the STAI assesses depression, as well as anxiety. One set of items appeared to assess anxiety and worry, whereas the other assessed sadness and self-deprecation. The two subscales correlated differentially with other measures of anxiety and depression in a manner that was consistent with their content. Finally, diagnostic groups and controls could be meaningfully distinguished on these subscales. Implications for the use of this measure are discussed.

Examination of the short form of the Inventory of Drinking Situations (IDS-42) in a young adult university student sample

The 42-item version of the Inventory of Drinking Situations (IDS-42) assesses relative frequency of drinking behavior across eight categories of drinking situations and was originally developed as a method for identifying high-risk situations in alcoholic samples. This study was designed to examine the psychometric properties of the IDS-42 in a sample of university students in order to assess its suitability as an assessment tool in the non-clinical population. Three hundred and ninety-six students (111 M, 283 F, 2 with missing gender data) completed the IDS-42 and a well established measure of drinking motives, the Drinking Motives Questionnaire (DMQ). Confirmatory factor analysis of the IDS-42 established a hierarchical factor structure with eight lower-order factors and three higher-order factors of negatively-reinforcing situations, positively-reinforcing situations, and temptation situations. The eight lower-order IDS-42 factors demonstrated moderate to high internal consistency and excellent concurrent validity with conceptually-similar DMQ subscale scores. Non-parametric analyses revealed that male students reported a higher drinking frequency overall as compared to female students, particularly in IDS-42 situations involving Social Pressure to Drink, Pleasant Times with Others, Testing Personal Control, and Urges and Temptations. Across the entire sample of university student drinkers, a higher drinking frequency was reported in positively-reinforcing situations as compared to negatively-reinforcing situations and temptation situations, as predicted. Results suggest the IDS-42 possesses good psychometric properties and support its utility as a tool in identifying situation-specific antecedents to drinking among university students.

Social Competence, Social Support, and Attachment: Demarcation of Construct Domains, Measurement, and Paths of Influence for Preschool Children Attending Head Start

Two studies designed to (1) explore measurement issues for the construct domains of social competence and social support and (2) test a model relating social competence to social support and to child-parent attachment for low-income (primarily African American) preschool children attending Head Start are reported. In Study 1, the definition, measurement, and structure of the social competence construct are evaluated in 2 samples of children. For Study 1A, 167 4-year-old children were assessed with a battery of observation, interview, and Q-sort measures. Relations among the measures suggested a hierarchical structure that was tested using a structural equation model. Results from the analysis supported the conjecture that social competence should be viewed as a hierarchically organized construct. In Study 1B, the model was tested again for a group of 3- and 4-year-old children (n = 265), using a modified set of measures. The general structure of the model from Study 1A was reproduced in this independent sample, although paths from the second-order factor to lower-order factors were not perfectly coordinated across samples. In Study 2, data for a subset of the children in Study 1B (n = 182), gathered with respect to features of their social networks, were examined to assess the structure of their social support networks. Descriptive and structural equation analyses are reported. Sixty-nine of these children were observed at home with their mothers and described using the Waters Attachment Q-sort. A structural equation model testing relations consistent with causal pathways from attachment security to both social support networks and to social competence and from the social support network variable to social competence with peers fit these data with a high degree of confidence. Subsequent analyses locating social competence as antecedent to attachment security were not significant. We conclude that the construct domains of social competence and social support networks can be meaningfully measured for preschool children and that individual differences with respect to these construct domains are related to child-parent relationship qualities.

Anxiety sensitivity: multiple dimensions and hierarchic structure

Anxiety sensitivity (AS) is the fear of anxiety-related sensations, based on beliefs that these sensations have harmful consequences. AS is thought to play an important role as a diathesis for anxiety disorders, particularly panic disorder. Recent evidence suggests that AS has a hierarchical structure, consisting of multiple lower-order factors, which load on a single higher-order factor. If each factor corresponds to a discrete mechanism, then the results suggest that AS arises from a hierarchic arrangement of mechanisms. A problem with previous studies is that they were based on the 16-item Anxiety Sensitivity Index (ASI), which may not contain enough items to reveal the type and number of lower-order factors. Accordingly, we developed the 60-item Anxiety Sensitivity Profile, which was administered to 349 university students. Factor analyses revealed four lower-order factors: (1) Fear of respiratory symptoms, (2) fear of cognitive dyscontrol, (3) fear of gastrointestinal symptoms, and (4) fear of cardiac symptoms. These loaded on a single higher-order factor. The lower-order factors shared variance with the higher-order factor, but also contained unique variance. Thus, the results suggest that AS is the product of a general factor, with independent contributions from four specific factors.

Factor Structure and Validity of a Revised Pain Anxiety Symptom Scale

The Pain Anxiety Symptoms Scale (PASS) (McCracken et al., 1992) is a frequently used 40-item measure designed to assess fearful appraisals of pain, pain-related cognitive and physiological anxiety, and escape/avoidance behavior. Research has shown the PASS to possess a reasonable validity; however, recent evidence has raised questions regarding the factorial validity of its subscales and indicates that revision and expansion appear warranted. Accordingly, we developed a revised and expanded Pain Anxiety Symptoms Scale (PASS-R). In Study 1, we expanded the item pool and administered the questions to a sample of 69 university students. On the basis of expert opinion and item analysis, we retained a total of 72 items. In Study 2, we subjected the responses of 256 university students to the 72-item PASS-R to a principal-components analysis with oblique rotation. This analysis revealed five lower-order factors (Interference, Approach Behaviours, Catastrophic Thoughts, Monitoring and Prevention, and Physiological Arousal) that loaded together on a single higher-order factor. We created new subscales on the basis of the lower-order factor structure and compared these subscales to a number of other self-report measures of pain, pain behavior, and related psychopathology. The PASS-R subscales demonstrated a good to excellent internal consistency as well as a good construct and criterion validity and contributed unique variance to the prediction of behavioral reactions to recent pain experiences (e.g., visiting a physician). Collectively, these results suggest that the PASS-R is a psychometrically sound self-report measure that allows detailed assessment of anxiety-related cognitions, physiological arousal, and behaviors in response to pain. The paper concludes with a discussion of implications of the studies and future research directions.

The structure of posttraumatic stress symptoms.

Posttraumatic stress disorder, as defined by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (3rd ed., rev. and 4th ed.; American Psychiatric Association, 1987, 1994, respectively), is characterized by 17 symptoms, descriptively clustered into 3 groups: (a) intrusions, (b) hyperarousal, and (c) avoidance and numbing. The present study sought to identify the basic dimensions (factors) that underlie these symptoms. Two samples were assessed: 103 victims of motor vehicle accidents and 419 United Nations peacekeepers deployed in Bosnia. A principal axis factor analysis was conducted for each sample. In each sample, 2 correlated factors were obtained, which were very similar across samples. Factor 1 was labeled Intrusions and Avoidance, and Factor 2 represented Hyperarousal and Numbing. These factors loaded on a single higher order factor. The higher order factor accounted for 13% to 38% of variance in symptom severity, and the lower order factors accounted for an additional 8% to 9% of variance. If the authors assume that each factor corresponds to a distinct mechanism (R. B. Cattell, 1978), then the results suggest that posttraumatic stress reactions arise from a general mechanism, with contributions from 2 specific mechanisms.

Personality dimensions and depression: review and commentary.

The relationship between dimensionally assessed personality and the onset, features, and course of depressive illness will be critically examined and considered in relation to 4 hypothesized models: predisposition or vulnerability: pathoplasty: complication or scar: and spectrum or continuity. Studies that have used clinically depressed adult patients to explore the relationship between personality dimensions and depression will be reviewed. Higher-order personality factors that have shown a significant and consistent association with major depressive illness include neuroticism, extraversion (negative relationship), and the factors of Cloninger's Tridimensional Personality Model. Neuroticism appears to be the most powerful predictor of depression. Lower-order factors showing a significant and consistent relationship with depressive illness include dependency, self-criticism, obsessionality, and perfectionism. The links between depression and dependency and self-criticism have the strongest empirical support. Several personality dimensions are significantly associated with depressive illness, but the evidence that unequivocally demonstrates a true personality predisposition for depression is modest. Measures of personality may prove to be clinically useful for treatment selection.

Gender differences in dimensions of anxiety sensitivity

Anxiety sensitivity (AS) is the fear of anxiety-related sensations arising from beliefs that these sensations have harmful physical, psychological, or social consequences. AS is measured using the Anxiety Sensitivity Index (ASI), a 16-item self-report questionnaire. Little is known about the origins of AS, although social learning experiences (including sex-role socialization experiences) may be important. The present study examined whether there were gender differences in: (a) the lower- or higher-order factor structure of the ASI; and/or (b) pattern of ASI factor scores. The ASI was completed by 818 university students (290 males; 528 females). Separate principal components analyses on the ASI items of the total sample, males, and females revealed nearly identical lower-order three-factor structures for all groups, with factors pertaining to fears about the anticipated (a) physical, (b) psychological, and (c) social consequences of anxiety. Separate principal components analyses on the lower-order factor scores of the three samples revealed similar unidimensional higher-order solutions for all groups. Gender × AS dimension analyses on ASI lower-order factor scores showed that: females scored higher than males only on the physical concerns factor; females scored higher on the physical concerns factor relative to their scores on the social and psychological concerns factors; and males scored higher on the social and psychological concerns factors relative to their scores on the physical concerns factor. Finally, females scored higher than males on the higher-order factor representing the global AS construct. The present study provides further support for the empirical distinction of the three lower-order dimensions of AS, and additional evidence for the theoretical hierarchical structure of the ASI. Results also suggest that males and females differ on these various AS dimensions in ways consistent with sex role socialization practices.

Negligible sex differences in the relation of cognitive and psychomotor abilities

Comparisons of cognitive and psychomotor aptitude factor structure were made for samples of men and women. The factor model was previously confirmed. It included two higher-order factors representing general cognitive ability ( g) and psychomotor/technical knowledge (PM/TK) as well as 10 lower-order cognitive and psychomotor factors. All cognitive and psychomotor tests contributed to the factor representing g. The PM/TK factor was interpreted as representing Vernon's (1969) practical factor (k:m). The model showed acceptable fit for both sexes. The proportion of total and common variance accounted for by the higher-order factors and lower-order factors were similar for men and women. Confirmatory factor techniques that imposed statistical constraints tested if the factor loadings were the same for both groups. Although some of the differences in loadings were statistically significant, they were small in magnitude (0.05 or less). The most notable differences occurred for the loadings of two technical knowledge tests on g and for a single psychomotor tests on PM/TK. All three tests had higher loadings for men than for women. Correlations between factor loadings for men and women approached r = 1.0. These results are consistent with previous research supporting the near identity of ability structure for men and women.

Testing a Second-Order Multidimensional Model of Negative Affectivity: A Cross-Validation Study

A number of conceptualizations and subsequent measures of Negative Affectivity (NA) have been presented in the literature. However, very few studies have attempted to establish the dimensionality of the NA construct prior to its use. The purpose of this preliminary investigation was to explore both the lower order and hierarchical conceptualizations of NA using Stokes and Levin's scale. The NA scale contains lower order factors of nervousness, pessimism, and dissatisfaction. Two samples were used to assess the hierarchical structure of the scale. The first sample consisted of management students (N = 356) of a large southeastern university. The second study consisted of managerial employees of a large automobile distributorship (N = 102) located in the southeastern United States. In each sample, the data indicated that the most satisfactory representation of the underlying structure of Stokes and Levin's NA scale was that of a higher order model. Following Watson and Clark, the authors recommend that researchers assess both levels of hierarchical structure of NA when using the Stokes and Levin scale, as well as other subsequent measures of the construct.

Vehicle-related burn injuries: D. J. Barillo, W. G. Cioffim, W. F. McManus, & B. A. Pruitt Jr., 37th Annual Proceedings for the Association for the Advancement of Automobile Medicine, November 4–6, 1993, San Antonio, TX, 209–218

The Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI) is the most widely used measure of the construct of narcissism. Four- and seven-factor solutions have been reported for the instrument. In the present study, 338 undergraduates completed the NPI along with a battery of personality questionnaires that include the NEO-FFI. Exploratory principal components analysis indicated that the NPI had a two- or three-factor structure. Confirmatory factor analyses were undertaken for one-, two- and three-factor models of the instrument. Fit indices were poor, typical of models with many item–level variables. The fits can be improved by allowing plausible correlated error terms in instances where items have very similar content. As a whole, the NPI is measuring a general narcissism construct, with two or three separable, correlated factors relating to ‘power’, ‘exhibitionism’, and being a ‘special person’. A psychometrically improved version of the NPI could be developed based on these factors. In the present study confirmatory factor analysis provided some insights not available from exploratory factor analysis, but was still largely exploratory in nature. NEO correlations with the overall factor were 0.36 for both extraversion and low agreeableness, with additional highly significant correlations for low neuroticism and high openness to experience. NEO correlations for the lower-order factors were similar.

Ego-Strength, Hardiness, Self-Esteem, Self-Efficacy, Optimism, and Maladjustment: Health-Related Personality Constructs and the “Big Five” Model of Personality

Six personality measures used in health psychology; the NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) criterion measures of stress, self-reported health status, and coping; and a measure of social desirability were administered to samples of college students and adult community volunteers ( N = 589) in a series of four confirmatory and exploratory factor analytic studies. The hypothesis that the six independently developed personality measures of ego-strength, hardiness, self-esteem, self-efficacy, optimism, and maladjustment would share common variance and that a hierarchical factor model with a single, higher-order Health Proneness factor loading two lower-order factors—Self-Confidence and Adjustment—would account for the covariance in these measures was tested against single and three-factor models and confirmed. The factor model was examined with respect to general personality as represented in the “Big Five” Model. Adjustment was related negatively to NEO-FFI Neuroticism and positively to NEO-FFI Conscientiousness and Agreeableness, whereas Self-Confidence was related to NEO-FFI Extraversion. None of these relationships is extensive, nor does any one account for more than 40% of the variance. Evidence of the validity of Self-Confidence and Adjustment was found in their moderate relationships to measures of stress, health status, and coping, and in their weak relationships to social desirability and negative affectivity.

Near identity of cognitive structure in sex and ethnic groups

Comparisons of aptitude factor structures were made in large samples of young Americans who took a multiple aptitude test battery. The factor model that was used had been statistically confirmed. It included hierarchical g and five lower-order factors representing Verbal, Math, Spatial, Technical Knowledge, and Perpetual Speed. The model showed good fit for both the sexes (male and female) and ethnic group (White, Black, Hispanic, Asian-American, and Native-American) comparisons. The proportions of total and common variance accounted for by g and the five lower-order factors were similar for men and women and for all five ethnic groups. Confirmatory factor techniques that imposed statistical constraints tested if the loadings of the tests were the same for both sexes and for Whites vs each of the other ethnic groups. Although many of the tests of the differences in the loadings were statistically significant, most differences were small in magnitude (less than 0.05). The most notable differences occurred for a test of aviation knowledge. It had a lower loading for men than for women on both hierarchical g and on the lower-order Technical Knowledge factor. It also had a lower loading for Whites than for Blacks and Asian-Americans on the lower-order Technical Knowledge factor. Correlations between factor loadings for the sex groups and for all pairs of ethnic groups were very high, approaching r = 1.0. Regressions between pairs of groups indicated that there was no mean difference in loadings between males and females and among the ethnic groups. These findings, along with previous research, present a consistent picture of near identity of structure of intellect for sex and ethnic groups.

Group Differences in Aptitude Factor Structure on the ASVAB

Comparisons of aptitude factor structures were made in large, nationally representative samples of young Black, White, and Hispanic men and women who took the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB). Confirmatory factor techniques imposing statistical constraints tested if the loadings of the tests were the same for sex and ethnic groups on a hierarchical general cognitive ability (g) factor and three residualized lower order factors, which included Verbal/Math, Technical Knowledge, and Speed. Tests that reflected content common in high school curricula, such as verbal and math, showed little sex or ethnic differences. The most outstanding difference was found between men and women on the loading of the Electronics Information test on g and on the lower order Technical Knowledge factor. In both cases, the loading was almost zero for females and moderate for males. Patterns in high school course enrollment by sex suggested the reason for the differences. Women are much less likely to enroll in courses emphasizing technical knowledge.

Anxiety sensitivity: An examination of theoretical and methodological issues

The construct of anxiety sensitivity (AS) has occupied an increasingly important place in theorizing and research on anxiety and anxiety disorders. Although a number of recent studies have provided support for the construct validity of the principal operationalization of AS, the Anxiety Sensitivity Index (ASI), the relation of the AS construct and the ASI to trait anxiety continues to be a source of controversy. Key issues in the AS-trait anxiety debate include the assimilative nature of traits and the concept of incremental validity. Recent research on AS lends some support to the claim that trait anxiety cannot fully account for AS findings. Important areas for future AS research include (1) demonstrating that AS is a risk factor for panic disorder and related conditions, lather than simply a consequence of these conditions, (2) developing and utilizing multiple operationalizations of constructs, (3) minimizing the impact of potentially inapplicable items, (4) testing for interactions between AS and other variables, and (5) testing hierarchical factor models that allow trait anxiety and AS to coexist as higher- and lower-order factors, respectively. Researchers in this area will need to develop alternative measures of the AS construct, recognize the distinction between different levels of trait specificity, clarify a number of theoretical issues relevant to the AS construct, and continue to subject predictions to stringent theoretical risks.

The Multidimensionality of the Rotter I-E Scale and its Higher-order Structure: An Application of Confirmatory Factor Analysis.

Rotter (1966, 1975) concluded that responses to his Internal-External (I-E) scale were unidimensional, or at least that one general factor explained most of the variance in the total score. The purpose of the present investigation is to examine the factorial structure of the original Rotter scale. A review of 20 published factor analyses indicated that the scale is not unidimensional, that not even two or three factors may be able to adequately explain responses to the scale, and that six distinguishable factors have been identified. Confirmatory factor analyses indicated that a five-factor model provided an adequate fit to data from the present investigation, but that alternative models with fewer factors or a simpler structure did not fit the data as well. However, a single higher-order factor was able to explain much of the variance in the lower-order factors and also provided a reasonable fit to the data. Hence, while there is strong evidence against the unidimensionality of the Rotter scale, the findings suggest that the first-order factors do define a single higher-order construct that may represent the generalized IE construct that Rotter originally hypothesized. Nevertheless, the continued reliance of locus of control research on the Rotter scale and on global measures of the construct may be counterproductive.

Loneliness and Social Support

Important research literatures have grown independently around the study of loneliness and social support. However, it is not clear whether these constructs are empirically or conceptually different. In this study, data from 739 young adults are used to examine the factor structure of two sets of loneliness scales and two sets of social support measures. Results indicated that four substantive factors related to the original scales and two support-specific factors accounted for the variation in 14 loneliness and social support variables. The substantive factors representing the Differential Loneliness Scale, the UCLA Loneliness Scale, Socially Supportive Relationships, and Social Resources were all highly intercorrelated, but significantly less than 1.0. A second-order factor was fit to the four substantive factors and found to be an acceptable representation of their intercorrelations. The support-specific factors were negatively correlated, indicating that Family-Specific Support was inversely associated with Peer-Specific Support. The separate measures of loneliness and social support were found to be endpoints of a higher-order construct of Attachment to Social Network. Thus, although loneliness and social support may be conceptually distinct among lower-order factors, they can be construed as generated by a higher-order construct of general social attachment.

Hypertensive therapy: A precaution

This study explored inter- and intra-individual differences in teachers' self-efficacy (TSE) by adapting Tschannen-Moran and Woolfolk Hoy's (2001) Teachers' Sense of Efficacy Scale (TSES) to the domain- and student-specific level. Multilevel structural equation modeling was used to evaluate the factor structure underlying this adapted instrument, and to test for violations of measurement invariance over clusters. Results from 841 third- to sixth-grade students and their 107 teachers supported the existence of one higher-order factor (Overall TSE) and four lower-order factors (Instructional Strategies, Behavior Management, Student Engagement, and Emotional Support) at both the between- and within-teacher level. In this factor model, intra-individual differences in TSE were generally larger than inter-individual differences. Additionally, the presence of cluster bias in 18 of 24 items suggested that the unique domains of student-specific TSE at the between-teacher level cannot merely be perceived as the within-teacher level factors' aggregates. These findings underscore the importance of further investigating TSE in relation to teacher, student, and classroom characteristics.