Low Literacy Rates Research Articles

Epidemiology of multimorbidity in Nepal: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Multimorbidity is rising in low-and middle-income countries such as Nepal, yet the research has not gained pace in this field. We aimed to systematically review the existing multimorbidity literature in Nepal and estimate the prevalence and map its risk factors and consequences. We reviewed data collated from PubMed, Embase and CINAHL by including original studies that reported prevalence of multimorbidity in Nepal. The quality of included studies was assessed using the Appraisal Tool for Cross-sectional Studies. The summary of the review is presented both qualitatively as well as through meta-analysis to give pooled prevalence. We prospectively registered in PROSPERO (CRD42024499598). We identified 423 studies out of which seven were included in this review. All studies were conducted in a community setting except one which was hospital based. The prevalence reported across various studies ranged from 13.96% to 70.1%. The pooled prevalence of multimorbidity was observed to be 25.05% (95% CI: 16.99 to 34.09). The number of conditions used to assess multimorbidity ranged from four to nine. The major risk factors identified were increasing age, urban residence, and lower literacy rates. A wide variance in the prevalence of multimorbidity was observed. Moreover, multimorbidity assessment tool/conditions considered for assessing multimorbidity were heterogeneous.

Educational Marginalization in Rural Pakistan: Sociocultural Economic Determinants for Policy Implications

In the socioeconomic context of the Koh-e-Suleman Tamun Qaisrani region of District Dera Ghazi Khan, the research examined the critical issue of early school departure and its multifaceted implications for the community and broader economic progress. Addressing a core aspect of human capital formation and societal development, the study scrutinized the impact of educational discontinuation on a country's overall advancement, emphasizing the linkage between early school dropout and a low literacy rate with manifold concomitant social challenges. Using a methodological approach encompassing convenient sampling techniques, data was elicited from 250 respondents via questionnaires. The research's analytical focus unearthed a clear correlation between parental income and literacy levels with students' dropout ratios and early school leaving tendencies. Key determinants were identified, including familial socioeconomic background, peer relationships, cultural phenomena such as early marriages, and logistical barriers like school distance. The findings divulged that lower parental income and literacy contribute to higher dropout rates and augmented probabilities of premature educational withdrawal. The study thus expounded a sociological critique of these systemic failures, accentuating the state's onus to ameliorate these issues. Recommendations were proffered, accenting the government's obligation to furnish elementary school amenities and institute financial aid measures for economically disadvantaged students, thereby cultivating an environment conducive to the amelioration of this profound social malaise.

Global, regional and national trends in tuberculosis incidence and main risk factors: a study using data from 2000 to 2021

BackgroundDespite the significant progress over the years, Tuberculosis remains a major public health concern and a danger to global health. This study aimed to analyze the spatial and temporal characteristics of the incidence of tuberculosis and its risk factors and to predict future trends in the incidence of Tuberculosis.MethodsThis study used secondary data on tuberculosis incidence and tuberculosis risk factor data from 209 countries and regions worldwide between 2000 and 2021 for analysis. Specifically, this study analyses the spatial autocorrelation of Tuberculosis incidence from 2000 to 2021 by calculating Moran’s I and identified risk factors for Tuberculosis incidence by multiple stepwise linear regression analysis. We also used the Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average model to predict the trend of Tuberculosis incidence to 2030. This study used ArcGIS Pro, Geoda and R studio 4.2.2 for analysis.ResultsThe study found the global incidence of Tuberculosis and its spatial autocorrelation trends from 2000 to 2021 showed a general downward trend, but its spatial autocorrelation trends remained significant (Moran’s I = 0.465, P < 0.001). The risk factors for Tuberculosis incidence are also geographically specific. Low literacy rate was identified as the most pervasive and profound risk factor for Tuberculosis.ConclusionsThis study shows the global spatial and temporal status of Tuberculosis incidence and risk factors. Although the incidence of Tuberculosis and Moran’s Index of Tuberculosis are both declining, there are still differences in Tuberculosis risk factors across countries and regions. Even though literacy rate is the leading risk factor affecting the largest number of countries and regions, there are still many countries and regions where gender (male) is the leading risk factor. In addition, at the current rate of decline in Tuberculosis incidence, the World Health Organization’s goal of ending the Tuberculosis pandemic by 2030 will be difficult to achieve. Targeted preventive interventions, such as health education and regular screening of Tuberculosis-prone populations are needed if we are to achieve the goal. The results of this study will help policymakers to identify high-risk groups based on differences in TB risk factors in different areas, rationalize the allocation of healthcare resources, and provide timely health education, so as to formulate more effective Tuberculosis prevention and control policies.

A STUDY ON CULTURAL &amp; INDIGENOUS FISHERY BUSINESS IN BATARDRAVA REGION OF NOGAON DISTRICT OF ASSAM, INDIA

The fishery sector plays an important role in sphere of culture specific business of people of Assam. The fishing industry includes any industry or activity concerned with taking, culturing processing, preserving storing, transporting marketing or selling fish products. Fishes are important element of Assamese life and culture.Those play a pivotal role in the socio-economic development and employment generation in Assam. This study aims to discuss socio-economic profile of indigenous fish cultivators, the different type of livelihood associated with it and the challenges faced by them. The study was conducted in Rowmari, Katahguri, Balijan, TunukaBori, Tuktuki and Silpukhuri villages which are in Batadrava block under Nagaon district.Primary data are collected from 60 respondents through well-structured schedule.The major findings were low literacy rates, Less technical exposure and non- participation of women folks. Further challenges and suggestions are discussed.

The Quality of Life among Tribal Communities Living in Western Ghats: An Exploratory Research

The Western Ghats (WG), also called Sahyadri, are a mountain range that covers 140,000 square kilometres and extends parallel to the western coast of the Indian Peninsula. The WG have been home to over fifty distinct tribes. The tribal community residing in the WG faces a multitude of obstacles, such as economic instability, low literacy rates, poor living conditions, limited political influence, and health-related issues. Quality of life (QOL) describes the well-being of a human’s life. This study aimed to investigate the QOL of tribal communities living in WG. The data were collected from the tribal settlement in the Ranni, Konni and Attapday forest division. This study was qualitative in nature and adopted exploratory research design and sampling design was purposive. The data collected for the study was through the single focus group discussions. 15 single focus group discussion were conducted. Each focus groups consisted with 12 participants, of which 6 were males and 6 were females. The data were analysed by thematic content analysis. This study proposed a model of quality of life; the model includes eight factors such as Social Relationship, Health, Work, Financial and Material Wellbeing, Belonging, Personal Safety, Quality of Environment, Emotional Wellbeing.

1920 ЖЫЛДАРДАҒЫ СЕМЕЙ ӨҢІРІНДЕГІ САУАТСЫЗДЫҚҚА ҚАРСЫ КҮРЕС: МӘСЕЛЕЛЕРІ МЕН НӘТИЖЕСІ

The article describes the reasons for the low literacy rate in the Semipalatinsk region in the first decade of Soviet rule. The study analyzes the main causes of the low level of illiteracy and also examines the various methods and approaches used by the authorities to overcome it. The role and importance of the literacy authorities established in the region were noted: the society «Down with illiteracy», the organization «Red Yurt», orphanages, educational centers, schools of the first stage, and the Kazakh pedagogical college. Quantitative and qualitative indicators of the level of illiteracy in the region have been determined based on materials from the funds of the Central State Archive of the Republic of Kazakhstan and the State Archive of the Abai region. The content and essence of instructions, information reporting letters, and reports of the departments of public education on the elimination of illiteracy are revealed. The literacy rate of the population and the number of educational institutions in the region are determined thanks to the materials of the population census, reports on the socio-economic development of the country, and statistical data. The authors concluded that it was not possible to solve the problem of eliminating illiteracy in the region by the decade of the October Revolution of the Soviet government due to objective and subjective reasons: poor financing of public education institutions, transfer of schools to public organizations, shortage of teaching staff, dependence of literacy elimination on the seasonality of agricultural activities, society's neglect of girls' education and the manifestation of the indifference of the population to the process of eliminating illiteracy. Measures to eliminate illiteracy in the Semipalatinsk region continued with the introduction of a system of «universal primary education» based on decisions taken by the party and state governing bodies in the early 1930s.

A Critical Review of Low School Enrollment and Literacy Rates among Girls in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Pakistan

Patriarchal principles dominate the social structure in Pakistani society. Moreover, Pakistan's culture is firmly anchored in traditions and practices that confine a woman's role to that of procreation, household management, child rearing, cleaning, and food preparation, which significantly reduces their enrollment in formal education. The present study not only provides a critical review of the existing literature but also adds primary data on the problems/challenges closely associated with low school enrollment and literacy among girls in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. A qualitative approach, including unstructured interviews along with secondary data, was adopted in this paper. The findings of the study show that several empirical studies examine the general causes of the low ratio of female education in the study area. However, this empirical work identified gaps in previous scholarly work, particularly from sociological perspectives, intending to inspire further studies from the lenses of local people regarding the low enrollment of female education.

Social service delivery for senior citizens in rural Philippines and secrets to longevity of Apo Whang-od

Access to social services such as healthcare, transportation, and financial support can be limited, leaving many elderly individuals vulnerable to poverty and social exclusion. This paper examined the recent elderly demographics, status of social service delivery, the roles of traditional and cultural practices, and specific challenges faced by older persons in rural areas, using the case of Apo Whang-od and her community, Buscalan that is in the municipality of Tinglayan, Province of Kalinga, Philippines. Using a mixed methods approach, this paper revealed that almost 11% of Tinglayan’s population is elderly, mostly indigenous people with a relatively low literacy rate, and low-income earners who are engaged mostly in subsistence farming and small-scale traditional craft making. Also, there are substantial government programs and services offered by existing laws; however, access to these is challenged by limited access to education and healthcare services, with long travel distances and a lack of transportation being major barriers. Financial difficulties were also observed, with no or few having access to social security benefits and reasonable amounts of pensions. The challenges can also be attributed to an unfavorable geographical location, conflicts with neighboring tribes, limited local government funds, lack of knowledge, and inadequate social service centers within the locality. Tinglayan’s cultural values were also found to play a pivotal role in supplementing the scarce social services by fostering a supportive atmosphere for the elderly. Analysing Apo-Whag-od's longevity, it was revealed that she lived a longer life because she ate organic and locally sourced food, slept well, laughed a lot, engaged in regular physical activity, nurtured her spiritual well-being, built strong relationships with her family and community, and kept a positive outlook. In conclusion, social demographics shows that elderlies in rural areas are disadvantaged, which calls for more efficient and effective access, delivery, and availability of social services. Moreover, policymakers are enjoined to accelerate social infrastructures, expand social protection programs, and support intergenerational solidarity and resilience and cultural preservation. Lastly, Apo Whang-od’s legacy lives on. Her popularity not only gained revitalization of the Kalinga tattoo culture, but it also inspired people to follow her steps to longer and happier way of life.

A Review on the Best Practices of Poverty Reduction in Developing Countries

Due to its detrimental effects on human wellbeing, extreme poverty, which exists in many developing nations, is a serious issue that requires immediate attention. It entails inadequate food and nutrition, inadequate housing, unsafe drinking water, low literacy rates, high rates of infant and maternal death, high unemployment, and a sense of helplessness and vulnerability. Reducing poverty can be accomplished through increasing employment and educational opportunities for the underprivileged; implementing institutional and economic reforms to increase productivity and optimize resource use; endorsing microfinance initiatives to lift barriers to small-scale business, innovation, and entrepreneurship; and creating and refining marketing strategies to boost output. Conducting this review is based on an analysis of old and recent literature. It looks at the development and meaning of poverty. Additionally, based on current discussions on the idea, the review shows the disparities in interpretations in developing nations and emphasizes the varied viewpoints regarding the concept of poverty

Assessment of Farmers Perception and Problems towards Adoption of Agroforestry Practices in Coastal Area of Bangladesh: A Study in Noakhali District

The economy of Bangladesh largely depends on agriculture. Agroforestry is one of the modern agricultural practices which ensure maximum utilization of resources and offer sustainable environmental and economic development. The present study was carried out to find out farmers’ perceptions and problems towards the adoption of agroforestry practices in the coastal area of Bangladesh. In total, 400 farmers were selected from five upazila of the Noakhali district following a proportionate random sampling technique. Face-to-face interviews, case studies, and focus group discussions (FGD) were used to obtain the data. Statics such as range, mean, standard deviation, Chi-square, and correlation analysis were applied. Most of the respondents were middle-aged (45%) with a low literacy rate and large family size (55%). The majority of them (50%) had small-sized land, and they had limited access to agricultural training. A greater part of the respondents (61%) had a very low level of knowledge of agroforestry practice. Silvopasture and homestead agroforestry system was practiced by most of the farmers (77%) without proper concept. Only 11% of the respondents know and practice multistrata agroforestry, which is one of the best agroforestry practice. The perception of the respondents towards the adoption of agroforestry was found low in most of the cases. They expressed a low level of acuity towards agroforestry, and they were not so interested towards the adoption of these practices. “Agroforestry adoption may be hampered by a lack of institutions and policies to support it” and “Lack of knowledge and awareness on agroforestry practice” was identified most significant problems with a chi-square value of 41.6 and 39.2 at 5% level of significance. Respondents’ knowledge of agroforestry, exposure to training, and farm size were positively and significantly correlated with their adoption of the practice (r = 0.437∗∗, 0.572∗∗, and 0.64∗∗, respectively). Demonstrations, awareness campaigns, financial incentives, and collaborations between government organizations and NGOs may increase the adoption of agroforestry practices in the coastal region of Bangladesh.

A regional stocktake of maize yield vulnerability to droughts in the Horn of Africa.

Climate projections in sub-Saharan Africa predict increased frequency of droughts with parallel impacts on crop yield. The Horn of Africa is among the most vulnerable regions in Africa to these changes because agriculture in general andmaize productionin particularly is highly climate driven, and rain-fed. Current research approaches have mostly focused on the climatic and biophysical drivers of crop yield without including the socio-economic drivers of crop yield. This study fills this gap by investigating the vulnerability of maize yield in the Horn of Africa to climate and socio-economic indicators. The hypothesis is that there is an inverse relationship between vulnerability and adaptive capacity. The vulnerability index is a composite index that integrates sensitivity, exposure, and adaptive capacity sub-indices. Maize yield data to compute the sensitivity index were collected from FAOSTAT, precipitation data to compute the exposure index were collected from the Climate Research Unit (CRU), and the data for the proxies of adaptive capacity were collected from the readiness index database on figshare. From the results, Somalia records the highest vulnerability index of 1.15, followed by Ethiopia with a vulnerability index of 0.61. Kenya records the lowest vulnerability index of 0.33. Also, there is a positive relationship between the vulnerability, sensitivity, and the exposure indices and an inverse relationship between the vulnerability index and the adaptive capacity index. The high vulnerability index recorded in Somalia is accentuated by a low adaptive capacity index of 0.44 that is anchored on low literacy and high poverty rates. As Somalia records the lowest adaptive capacity index of 0.44, Ethiopia and Kenya record 0.91 and 0.99 respectively. This study has shown that to better understand vulnerability, a shift from the old paradigm that focuses on the climatic variables to integrating socio-economic variables or proxies of adaptive capacity whichenhances ourunderstanding ofvulnerability. Though leveraging the benefits of climatic and non-climatic variables is important, the challenge so far has been on how to integrate these in the same model; a challenge this work has succinctly overcome by integrating adaptive capacity in the vulnerability equation.

UPAYA PENGUATAN LITERASI KEAGAMAAN SISWA MTS AR-ROIS CENDEKIA SEMARANG MELALUI KAJIAN HADIS

There is a lot of data and facts that explain that Indonesia has a low literacy rate. This research aims to examine efforts to strengthen the religious literacy of students at MTs Ar-Rois Cendekia Semarang through the study of hadith which is used as a positive habit because of the importance of strengthening understanding of religion in students' lives. This research is a type of qualitative research with data collection techniques using interviews and observation. The research results show that students' weak religious literacy can be strengthened through positive habits in islamic junior hight school through the study of hadiths which contain various kinds of hadiths, including authentic, hasan and dha'if hadiths. The importance of strengthening religious literacy is to make students more intelligent, critical and selective in sorting information related to religion and can improve social skills, religious character and cross-cultural abilities.

The Involvement of Marginalized Menja Society Children in primary education: A case study of the Bench Sheko Zone, Ethiopia

The study aimed at examining the involvement of marginalized Menja Society Children in primary schools of Bench Sheko Zone. The research utilized a case study design to explore how in-school and out-of-school factors affect the educational participation of Menja Society Children in the Bench Sheko Zone. Qualitative data were collected through interviews, observations, focus group discussions, and document analysis. The snowball sampling technique was used to select informants for the study. The study revealed that factors such as distance, low literacy rates, religious marginalization, economic challenges, limited peer interaction, lack of respect, and unfair treatment are the primary barriers preventing these children from participating in education. Additionally, cultural practices like pot making, agricultural work, and charcoal production also contribute to the marginalization of Menja Society Children. In conclusion, the study underscores the importance of addressing the complex and multi-faceted challenges that marginalized Menja Society Children have been facing in accessing education. The study emphasizes the importance of providing support and resources for Menja children, such as educational materials in their native language and culturally sensitive teachers. It also calls for a comprehensive and collaborative approach to address the educational challenges faced by marginalized Menja Society Children, prioritizing their needs and promoting inclusivity within schools and the wider community. The study recommends creating an inclusive and supportive environment for marginalized students within schools, prioritizing their educational needs, and developing appropriate solutions to ensure equal access to education. It also suggests ongoing awareness campaigns and efforts to promote inter-ethnic relations through various activities. Additionally, providing training for teachers and leaders in cultural diversity and inclusive teaching methods is crucial for establishing a more inclusive learning environment for all Menja children.

Comparing pain intensity rating scales in acute postoperative pain: boundary values and category disagreements.

Pain intensity assessment scales are important in evaluating postoperative pain and guiding management. Different scales can be used for patients to self-report their pain, but research determining cut points between mild, moderate and severe pain has been limited to studies with < 1500 patients. We examined 13,017 simultaneous acute postoperative pain ratings from 913 patients taken at rest and on activity, between 4 h and 48 h following surgery using both a verbal rating scale (no, mild, moderate or severe pain) and 0-100 mm visual analogue scale. We determined the best cut points on the visual analogue scale between mild and moderate pain as 35 mm, and moderate and severe pain as 80 mm. These remained consistent for pain at rest and on activity, and over time. We also explored the presence of category disagreements, defined as patients verbally describing no or mild pain scored above the mild/moderate cut point on the visual analogue scale, and patients verbally describing moderate or severe pain scored below the mild/moderate cut point on the visual analogue scale. Using 30 and 60 mm cut points, 1533 observations (12%) showed a category disagreement and using 35 and 80 mm cut points, 1632 (13%) showed a category disagreement. Around 1 in 8 simultaneous pain scores implausibly disagreed, possibly resulting in incorrect pain reporting. The reasons are not known but low rates of literacy and numeracy may be contributing factors. Understanding these disagreements between pain scales is important for pain research and medical practice.

Truck Hall: riding with the tide

Learning outcomes Upon completion of the case study, students should be able to understand how changes in a macro environment affect the competitive landscape in an emerging market; acquire a granular understanding about the logistics industry in an emerging market and the various business models developed to service customer needs; determine the attractiveness and challenges of doing business in a fragmented but sunrise industry in an emerging market; and identify the drivers for growth and profitability in the logistics business. Case overview/synopsis Manisha Sharaf (she/her) and her co-founders conceived the idea of Truck Hall in 2011 to ride with the tide created by booming public investments in the infrastructure and transportation sector. Truck Hall aimed to improve the efficiency of the logistics industry in India by extensively using technology. However, the market research showed that technology-driven services in logistics faced many challenges owing to low internet penetration in the country, weak network connectivity during transportation and the low literacy rates of the truck drivers who were central to this industry. Between 2015 and 2018, Truck Hall experimented with several business models including load board, brokerage and integrated transporter with the sole purpose of achieving profitable growth in a highly fragmented industry with razor-thin margins. This case documented the dilemma faced by a startup in a high-growth but largely unorganized and unregulated industry in a developing economy. Should Truck Hall continue with the current business model of being a niche player or should it vertically integrate and control major segments of the value chain? Should it compromise on growth to become profitable or first scale up? Complexity academic level This case study can be used at the undergraduate, graduate and executive levels. Supplementary materials Teaching notes are available for educators only. Subject code CSS 11: Strategy.

Diagnosing Poverty Eradication Through Literacy: Analysis from Indonesia National Socioeconomic Survey

Literacy can be interpreted as a tool for the development of global society. However, the low literacy rate in Indonesia obstructs the quality of human resource improvement in education. Based on data from the PISA (2019), Indonesia is ranked 62nd in the literacy level from 70 countries. Quality of education is one of the economical ways to reduce the illiteracy that is interrelated to poverty. A question arises as to whether literacy-based cognitive abilities can reduce poverty . Previous studies on education for poverty eradication were limited to the regular cognitive domain. This study attempts to fill that gap. A Probit regression model was used with the probability of becoming poor as the dependent variable. A set of literacy-based cognitive abilities, such as age, gender, education level, and geographical factor are used as explanatory variables. According to 2019 National Socioeconomic Survey data, the analysis indicated that literacy-based cognitive abilities have a significant negative impact on poverty. Literacy has often been limited to the ability to read, write, and perform basic arithmetic. In order people to function effectively in their communities, the government should put focus on education attainment that cultivates functional literacy. It refers to the practical skills needed to read, write, and perform math for real-life purposes.

Education System in Mandoul in Chad: Between Poverty and the 2014 Reform

If education is a factor of sustainable socio-economic development, the reform of the education system of a country like Chad where poverty affects almost 50% of households appears as the motor of the machine of the "well-being of the populations" among which 75.6% live in rural areas. As a result, the geographic region of Mandoul is not the rest because it has a poverty rate of over 26%, which makes it a province of extreme poverty. Despite repeated reforms, this southern part of the country with enormous economic potential is lagging behind in terms of education with a low literacy rate for those aged 15 and over (40.3%). This is why it was chosen for this study. The objective is to measure the impact of the 2014 reform on the quality of school infrastructure and the recruitment of qualified teachers and the improvement in the quality of education provided for by this reform. The realization of this study focused on documentary research and a survey of key actors in the education system. The results showed that seven years after the reform, the results of its implementation remain mixed and its impact remains barely visible, especially in rural areas. Indeed, some public establishments around major urban centers have closed their doors due to precarious working conditions and the lack of teachers. This situation has caused, on the one hand, the creation of community colleges in rural areas and, on the other hand, the influx of students to the commune of Koumra, a major center of human attraction in the area. This category of students, living alone or with a tutor, finds it difficult to integrate and adapt to the new life far from their parents. Difficulties related to food, accommodation and school fees force learners to anticipate holidays for field work in order to ensure their school survival.

Understanding school enrollment in the free education era: Roadblocks to meeting the sustainability development goal

AbstractFor decades, Pakistan's government has continuously provided its citizens with accessible, universal, basic education; however, these efforts have not yielded any gains for the citizens. Consequently, Pakistan has a lower literacy rate, one of the lowest in South Asia and the rest of the world. Although such a substantial issue is daunting and weakens the country's educational system, there needs to be more evidence that proposes potential implications or interventions in identifying the most important in‐school factors of primary school enrollment in Pakistan. Therefore, the present study derived a literature review‐driven hypothesis and administered a rigour analysis using the 2018 school census from the Punjab government education commission, showing detailed information on 24,305 public primary schools. The finding of this study asserts that the medium of instruction has shown a considerable impact on primary school enrollment and the availability of qualified teachers. Single‐sex schools, WASH facilities, and the security of schools have significant and diverse effects in determining student enrollment, which leads to forwarding possible implications to scholars, educators, and policymakers.

Socio-economic Conditions of Dry Fishers and Wholesalers: A Case Study of the Coastal Dry Fishing Communities of Bangladesh

The coastal areas of Bangladesh, particularly the southeast region, is notorious for producing a majority of dried fish products in the country by recruiting numerous dry fishers and wholesalers (locally called Mohajon). This study examines the socio-economic condition and livelihood status of small scale dry fish producing communities in Nazirartek, a renowned fish drying village situated in Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh. It was perceived that the dry fishers lived in a very underdeveloped state with low income and literacy rates, poor living standards and malnourished condition, whereas the livelihood of wholesalers was comparatively better. The inadequate compensation during rainy seasons was another reason for the unimproved livelihood of the fishers. Because of this, they had to take up substitute agricultural or other occupations during the off-seasons of fish drying activities. Majority (60%) of the wholesalers had attended secondary school, considering 56.66% fishers went up to primary school with no further secondary school education. Furthermore, over 50% fishers had an annual income of 81,000 to 100,000 BDT while 70% wholesalers earned above 100,000 BDT year-1. Primarily, the major constraints encountered by the communities are vulnerability to extreme weather, reliance on loans due to low wages, inadequate off-season income opportunities, lack of good treatment facilities, no prior training and scarcity of technological facilities. With appropriate management strategies, comprehensive marketing systems, national co-operation and employment opportunities, the dry fishing industries of Bangladesh can be developed to its’ full potential.

2 Clinical Validity and Cut-Off Scores of a Brief Neuropsychological Battery for a Large Rural Population in Community Setting

Objective:There is a dearth of an appropriate standardized tool to assess neuropsychological functions in rural population, which has low literacy rates, are culturally diverse, and have limited access to healthcare resources. The NIREH Neuropsychological Battery for Rural Population (NINB-RP) is a relatively brief and easy-to-administer battery comprising multiple tests that are modified or adopted as per rural community settings to evaluate verbal learning, fine coordination, attention efficiency, executive task, concentration, and visual attention, mental flexibility, and motor coordination in rural populations. The present study aimed to examine the clinical validity and establish cut-off scores for impairment of neuropsychological functions for different age, gender, and education levels of NINB-RP in a rural community in central India.Participants and Methods:This was a prospective cross-sectional study conducted in participants aged &gt; 18 years (n=2952, M: F=1407:1545) recruited through a stratified sampling technique from 23 randomly selected villages from central India. The data of nine neuropsychological tests [(Finger and Tweezer dexterity test (FDT, TDT); Digit Forward and Backward test (DFT, DBT); Serial subtraction test (SST); Trail Making-A and B; Finger Tapping test (FTT); and Letter Digit Substitution test, LDST)] from 215 cognitively impaired and 2737 healthy control subjects were analyzed. The tests were performed in a village school/community hall or an outdoor camp. Independent sample t-test, Chi-square test, and Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curve were used to calculate the area under the curve (AUC), cut-off scores, and sensitivity (ST)/specificity (SP) values for seven conditions, i.e., gender (male vs. female), age groups (up to 49 years and above 50 years); and educational levels (illiterate, intermediate and college). For those variables where ST/SP values were lower than 0.70, a unique cut-off score was calculated for the entire sample, adjusting by age and educational levels.Results:A significant difference in mean (median) scores between the healthy control and cognitively impaired groups were observed in all tests except Trail Making A and B and LDST. The AUC for most of the tests ranged from 0.70 to 0.81, and the ST/SP values ranged from 69-73% and 65-75%, respectively. The results showed that most tests of NINB-RP reached moderate to good sensitivity and specificity for gender, age and education levels, except for DBT for females, above 50 years, and illiterate and intermediate education groups. FDT for males [AUC: 0.85 (95%CI0.80-0.91], ST/SP=76/82%] and females [(AUC=0.78 (95%CI0.74-0.82), ST/SP=71/70%], TDT for intermediate education group [AUC=0.82 (95%CI0.60-1.00), ST/SP=86/83%] and FTT for less than 49 years age group [AUC=0.75 (95%CI0.67-0.84), ST/SP=71/76%] were the most useful tests to discriminate among healthy control and cognitively impaired rural population.Conclusions:The present study is an attempt to establish the cut-off scores of a neuropsychological battery for a large rural population in the community setting. The proposed cut-off values might be helpful in clinical assessment in rural areas where clinical neuropsychology services are not readily available. NINB-RP can be a valuable tool for clinical research studies in rural communities. Further studies on similar samples in other countries need to be undertaken.