Siwalik Research Articles

Description of new Pliocene to Early Pleistocene deer (Cervidae, Mammalia) remains from the Siwalik Hills in Pakistan with a discussion on paleobiogeography of cervids from the Indian subcontinent

This article presents a description of new antler remains from five fossiliferous sites (Sardhok, Panjan Sher Shahana, Puran, Jari Kas, and Potha) of the Upper Siwaliks in Pakistan. The systematic study of the antler material revealed the presence of six cervid forms: Metacervocerus punjabiensis, Rucervus sp., Panolia sp., Hyelaphus sp., Praesinomegaceros bakri, and a poorly represented large cervid that shows a certain affinity with “Eucladoceros sp.” from the Early Pleistocene of Kuruksai (Tajikistan). The remains of Panolia represent the earliest known paleontological record of this cervid lineage. Unlike Metacervocerus and Rucervus that have had phylogenetically closely related counterparts in east and north of the Alpine-Himalayan mountain belt, the evolution of Panolia took place in the Indian subcontinent. The entry of Panolia lineage into the Indian subcontinent marks its phylogenetic split from the main Cervus/Rusa evolutionary branch. The earliest dispersal events of cervids into the Indian subcontinent was preceded by the late Miocene evolutionary radiation and ecological diversification of the subfamily Cervinae in Southeastern Asia. Praesinomegaceros and Metacervocerus most probably entered the Indian subcontinent via Central Asia. Possibly, this is also the case of “Eucladoceros sp.” from Kuruksai (Tajikistan). The dispersal ways of Panolia and Rucervus remain unclear. The dispersals of small-sized cervids (Muntiacus and Hyelaphus) into the Indian subcontinent was triggered by the establishment of the 100-ky glaciation cycle during the Middle Pleistocene: the sea level dropped during glacial peaks and opened to them the dispersal route from Sundaland in the South.

New fossil mammalian assemblages and first record of ostrich from the Pinjore (Pinjor) formation (2.58–0.63 Ma) of Siwalik Hills near Chandigarh, northern India

The Pinjore Formation of the Upper Siwalik subgroup, north of Chandigarh, provides one of the most extensive and continuous sequences of Quaternary deposits in northern India. Since the early 19th century, scholars have been involved with extensive surveys and comprehensive fossil collections from the region. However, most fossils were collected as surface finds. New palaeontological surveys were initiated in 2020 to identify in-situ fossil scatters to understand palaeoecological and palaeodietary shifts in fauna within the Pinjore deposits (2.58–0.63 Ma). As a result, six new palaeontological localities were discovered in the region, with 981 fossil specimens (dental, post-cranial and fossil eggshells). The post-cranial remains are fragmentary and undiagnosable, but dental remains can be identified to eight mammalian species of bovids, equids, proboscideans and rodents. More significantly, fossilised ratite eggshells were also discovered and collected from four separate scatters across the locality of Choti Badi Nangal and can be provisionally assigned to Struthio cf. S. camelus molybdophanes. This is also the first report of fossilised ratite eggshells from the Upper Siwalik Hills of India.

Determining metamorphic grade from greenschist to amphibolite using Hyperion data: the case of an inverted metamorphic gradient of Almora nappe (lesser Himalaya)

The intricate nature of metamorphic terrain remains a complex problem for many remote sensing scientists. The metamorphic rock assemblages are composed by intrinsic mixtures of index minerals which are defined at different pressure and temperature zones. Metamorphic assemblage’s nature and geothermal gradient can be identified using reflectance spectroscopy. The study aims to determine the nature and gradient of metamorphism using spectral identification of the index mineral phases. A model for metamorphic assemblage was developed to predict the nature and grade of metamorphism in order to address the problem with the inadequate quantification of mineral spectral mixing. The study addresses the problem by incorporating semi-empirical method of classification of metamorphic rock assemblage based on reflectance characteristics. We use the simulated spectral library of Hyperion satellite data which is favourable for classifying geological outcrops in metamorphic terrain of the Almora nappe of lower Himalayas. The Hyperion data analysis reveals the nature and trend of change of the metamorphic grades within different zones based on mass proportion of index mineral assemblages. An inverse thermal grade of the metamorphic Almora group is observed along North Almora Thrust and South Almora Thrust, where reverse thrusting might have resulted in lowering of pressure and temperature condition. The developed model can be utilized for geological survey’s involving metamorphic terrain in inaccessible areas.

Pedological Development of Soils in Eastern Agroclimatic Zone of Haryana through Field Morphology Rating System

A study was carried out to evaluate the pedological development of soils in Eastern agroclimatic zone of Haryana using field morphology rating system. For this, nine pedons were excavated to study the morphological properties in field and rating scale was used to compare adjacent horizons with each other to give a comparison of the relative distinctness of horizons or to compare horizons in the solum with the C-horizon to give a relative profile development in soils occurring in different physiographic positions i.e. Shiwalik hills, recent and old alluvial plains with different precipitations throughout the study area. Some chemical properties were also used to evaluate the pedogenic factors as a result of being affected by process and factors of soil formation due to the distinct effect of climate. The Relative Horizons Distinctness (RHD) ratings were made by a comparison of adjacent horizons. The soils of Shiwalik hills, recent and old alluvial plains have RHD ratings from 6 to 14, 3 to 11 & 3 to 12, respectively. The RPD ratings were made by a comparison of the C horizon to the horizons above it in the profile. The soils of Shiwalik hills, recent and old alluvial plains have RPD ratings from 7 to 15, 3 to 14 & 5 to 16. The RPD values of all the profiles were maximum in A horizon due to maximum pedological development influenced by weathering. So, studies of these soils indicated the pedological development in the order of Shiwalik hills > old alluvial plains > recent alluvial plains.

PM2.5 Pollution Levels and Chemical Components at Teahouses along the Poon Hill Trek in Nepal

Unhealthy levels of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) from the local burning of solid fuels, and from regional transport of pollutants, remain a major public health problem in the Himalayan foothill villages in Nepal. Teahouses (i.e., mountain lodges) along popular hiking trails in the lower Himalayas commonly use wood as the primary energy source for heating; however, little is known about teahouse air quality. The purpose of this study was to characterize the levels and chemical constituents of indoor and ambient PM2.5 at three villages along the Poon Hill circuit trek in the Annapurna Conservation Area in Nepal. A convenience sample of five PM2.5 measurements was collected with portable MicroPEM V.3.2A exposure monitors. Filters were analyzed for black and brown carbon using integrating sphere optical transmittance and 33 elemental constituents using energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence. Median indoor PM2.5 over the sampling period was 41.3 µg/m3, whereas median ambient PM2.5 over the sampling period was 34.7 µg/m3. Chemical species associated with wood smoke, such as potassium (GM = 0.88 µg/m3), predominated. High indoor and ambient PM2.5 levels may pose a significant occupational health risk to teahouse workers, who may experience chronic exposures during trekking seasons. Our findings warrant additional research to characterize teahouse air pollution exposures more fully and to evaluate intervention measures.

Distribution Expansion of Dengue Vectors and Climate Change in India.

India has witnessed a five‐fold increase in dengue incidence in the past decade. However, the nation‐wide distribution of dengue vectors, and the impacts of climate change are not known. In this study, species distribution modeling was used to predict the baseline and future distribution of Aedine vectors in India on the basis of biologically relevant climatic indicators. Known occurrences of Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus were obtained from the Global Biodiversity Information Facility database and previous literature. Bio‐climatic variables were used as the potential predictors of vector distribution. After eliminating collinear and low contributing predictors, the baseline and future prevalence of Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus was determined, under three Representative Concentration Pathway scenarios (RCP 2.6, RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5), using the MaxEnt species distribution model. Aedes aegypti was found prevalent in most parts of the southern peninsula, the eastern coastline, north eastern states and the northern plains. In contrast, Aedes albopictus has localized distribution along the eastern and western coastlines, north eastern states and in the lower Himalayas. Under future scenarios of climate change, Aedes aegypti is projected to expand into unsuitable regions of the Thar desert, whereas Aedes albopictus is projected to expand to the upper and trans Himalaya regions of the north. Overall, the results provide a reliable assessment of vectors prevalence in most parts of the country that can be used to guide surveillance efforts, despite minor disagreements with dengue incidence in Rajasthan and the north east, possibly due to behavioral practices and sampling efforts.

Partial altitudinal movement of Himalayan Bulbul Pycnonotus leucogenys in Himalayan Siwalik range

Himalayan Bulbul Pycnonotus leucogenys is widely spread in the Himalayan Siwalik range but information is available on its migratory behavioural patterns. Hence, a two-year study was undertaken to investigate its distribution range of the species in the summer and winter seasons in Punjab and Himachal Pradesh. A total of twenty variables including 19 bioclimatic variables and elevation were selected for the development of Species distribution Modelling (SDM). Occurrence records of P. leucogenys in summer and winter were processed at the Maximum entropy model (MaxEnt) using the ENMeval data package. The results suggested a downward movement from the upper Siwalik Himalayan ranges to the lower Siwalik in winter, and with return migration movement in summer. However, a large fraction of the distribution range was found overlapping in both the models, which suggests partial altitudinal migration of P. leucogenys. The data recorded on the ground subordinate the finding of the model. A wide range of tolerance for bioclimatic variables was observed in P. leucogenys, however temperature-related factors played a vital role in the variation in the species distribution range in the annual cycle of partial migration. The finding of this study would be a valuable reference for future studies on ecological and behavioral aspects of partial-migration of bird species in the Himalaya.

Two new varieties of Russula Pers. (Basidiomycota: Russulaceae) from Sal forests of Shiwaliks, India

This paper deals with two new varieties of Russula species, R. camarophylla var. reticulospora var. nov. and R. aurea var. minuta var. nov. These were collected from the Shiwalik range of northwestern India, in association with Shorea robusta. Russula aurea var. minuta differs from R. aurea in having small sized sporophores, dentate to wavy gill edges with golden or yellow deposition instead of smooth and much smaller spores. Whereas, mushroom R. camarophylla var. reticulospora is close to Russula camarophylla except for the larger carpophores that have white cream pileus surface and larger spores. In basidiospores warts are connected to form mostly complete reticulum instead of mostly isolated warts reported in Russula camarophylla. In view of the presence of some unique varied features in the presently examined collections two new varieties of Russula has been proposed.

Phosphate solubilizing epilithic and endolithic bacteria isolated from clastic sedimentary rocks, Murree lower Himalaya, Pakistan.

Rock microbes are capable to solubilize phosphate present in the rocks.. In this study, we focused on the isolation of phosphate solubilizing bacteria from rocks of Murree, Pakistan. Both endolithic and epilithic bacteria were screened for phosphate solubilization. Three bacterial strains were selected based on halozone formation inNational Botanical Research Institute for phosphate) medium supplemented with TCP (tribasic calcium phosphate). The solubilization index for these bacteria was recorded as 4.29, 4.03 and 3.99. The pH of the medium dropped from 7.0 to 4.0 after 5days with continuous shaking at 150rpm, which facilitate the phosphate solubilization. The strains P26, P4 and N27 were identified as Pseudomonas putida strain (KT004381), Pseudomonas grimontii (KT223621) and Alcaligenes faecalis (KT004385). Strain P26 showed maximum phosphate solubilization (367.54µg/ml), while P4 and N27 showed 321.88 and 291.36µg/ml after 3days of incubation. Such inorganic phosphate solubilization could be attributed to the organic acids production by bacteria. The presence of organic acids is determined by high-performance liquid chromatography. Three different types of acids, gluconic, oxalic and malic acid were the dominant acids found in the culture medium. It may be assumed that these bacteria can play a role in weathering of rocks as well. PSB is likely to serve as an efficient biofertilizer, especially in areas deficient in P to increase the overall performance of crops.

Tectonic Juxtaposition of Two Independent Paleoproterozoic Arcs by Cenozoic Duplexing in the Arun Tectonic Window of the Eastern Nepalese Himalaya

The tectonic evolution of the Himalayan orogenic belt before Cenozoic convergence is important to understand its modern structural framework. There is still controversy regarding the tectonic history of the lower Lesser Himalaya Sequence (LHS) in the frame of the Paleoproterozoic geological record. In this study, integrated analysis of field geology, zircon U-Pb age, Hf isotope, and whole-rock geochemistry was conducted across the LHS and the Main Central Thrust zone in the Arun Valley, eastern Nepal, to address their Precambrian tectonic evolution and the later convergence. Two groups of metasedimentary rocks with different age spectrums of detrital zircons and Hf isotope in the Paleoproterozoic can be distinguished in an imbricated duplexing system in the study area. One group with a maximum depositional age around ca. 1800 Ma has a unimodal detrital zircon pattern and negative zircon ƐHf (t) values ranging from −8.9 to 0.9. These data can be interpreted to reflect the deposition of zircons close to a Japanese-type arc that was isolated from the northern Indian Craton. The other group of calc-silicate rocks and quartzite with multiple peaks of detrital zircons in the Paleoproterozoic show a younger maximum depositional age around ca. 1,600 Ma and variable zircon ƐHf (t) values ranging from −6.7 to 8.8, indicating their deposition in a back-arc basin of an Andean-type arc established on the northern Indian Craton. The geochemistry of an orthogneiss sample dated at 1783 ± 11 Ma indicates high potassium, peraluminous granodiorite protolith emplaced in a volcanic arc or syn-collisional tectonic setting, supporting the existence of the Paleoproterozoic Andean-type arc. We hypothesize that possibly two arc systems developed, respectively, onto and in the proximity of northern Indian Craton in the Paleoproterozoic at the final stages of the Columbia supercontinent formation. These two arcs were juxtaposed either in the Paleoproterozoic or Cenozoic time, and were finally imbricated during the Cenozoic duplexing.

Study on Soil Enzyme Activities in Reference to Deforestation in the Shiwalik Hills of Jammu and Kashmir

A study was conducted in the forest area of Bani, Batote, Basholi, Bhaderwah, Poonch and Samba (Shivalik region) of Jammu division of Jammu and Kashmir. 10 samples of soil at four depths from each area were taken. A portion of the sample was stored at 4°C for biological analysis. Sulphatase was estimated by Tabatabai and Bremner method (1972). The p-nitrophenol released by soil arylsulfataseenzymes was calculated by a standard calibration curve developed using 10-50 micro gram p-nitrophenol. The mean value of sulphatase (μg of p-nitrophenol released/g of soil) inforest areas recorded at 0-15 cm soil depth was 76.95 in Bhaderwah; 76.45 in Basholi; 75.85 in Batote; 74.95 in Poonch; 76.45 in Bani; 62.01 in Samba. Whereas in deforested areas mean value of sulphatase recorded at 0-15cm soil depth was 42.26 in Bhaderwah; 41.98 in Basholi; 41.65 in Batote; 41.16 inPoonch; 41.98 in Bani; 34.05 in Samba. Results showed that the sulphatase in soil decreased due to deforestation.

A ‘large and valuable’ Siwalik fossil collection in the archives of the Oxford University Museum of Natural History

ABSTRACT This article describes results from a review of South Asian fossils in the Oxford University Museum of Natural History. These materials include two early 19th century collections of fossils from the Siwalik Hills in India. While this assemblage was summarised in 1837 by William Buckland as ‘large and valuable collections of fossil bones’, it has remained largely unstudied and unpublished in any detail since collection. Here, as a precursor to a comprehensive re-evaluation, we establish a chronological and geographical context of one collection event, provide details of its donor, and outline its history after arrival in Oxford. We then describe select taxa in the collection, including a well-preserved maxilla and toothrow of the large extinct giraffid, Sivatherium giganteum, as a basis to justify our current understanding of the biostratigraphic affinity of the assemblage. Conservatively, the collection is a ‘classic’ Upper Siwalik Plio-Pleistocene fauna, possibly the first to be transported to the UK. While further analyses will realise the scientific potential of the fossils, the narrative of their journey from India to Oxford remains incomplete. Further investigation of the hidden history of the collection is warranted.

Study of etnano-medicinal plant of Himachal Pradesh

The Indian state of Himachal Pradesh may be found in the region of the country known as the Himalayan foothills. Because of the state's unique geography and altitude, it is subject to a wide variety of temperatures, which in turn allows for a wide variety of plant life to flourish across the state. As a result of the broad altitudinal range that it spans, the Indian state of Himachal Pradesh is home to a wide variety of different species, habitats, groups, populations, and ecosystems. It is believed that the state of Himachal Pradesh is home to more than 3,400 unique types of flora and fauna. More than a thousand distinct plant species that have been identified as aromatic or useful may be found thriving in Alaska's temperate forests, Shiwalik hills, alpine and sub-alpine pastures, and other regions of the state. The bulk of the people who reside in Himachal Pradesh are descended from a wide range of distinct cultures and ethnic groups; as a result, each of these groups have its own unique body of indigenous knowledge. Traditional and rural civilizations are obliged to rely largely on the plants that are already native to the region since there is limited access to contemporary medical services in rural areas, particularly in high-altitude areas. This survey will be beneficial to medical practitioners as well as the pharmaceutical industry in terms of strengthening public health facilities and maintaining the continuous growth of wild medicinal plant species in the region that is the subject of the current research.

Plant ecology in Indian Siwalik range: a systematic map and its bibliometric analysis

Plant ecology in Indian Siwalik range: a systematic map and its bibliometric analysis

Assessing the trends and drivers of land use land cover change in district Abbottabad lower Himalayan Region Pakistan

Land Use Land Cover (LULC) dynamics and the associated drivers are vehemently debated issues among scientific community due to its significant impact on global scale. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the major trends and drivers influencing LULC change in District Abbottabad, Pakistan. Mixed method approach comprising of remote sensing, Geographic Information System (GIS) and household survey were employed to collect data from 130 households. Descriptive data was analyzed through index-based ranking. Further logistic regression was employed to examine the impact of perceived drivers of LULC change. Ranking of major perceived and proximate drivers identified were unplanned urbanization, natural conditions, agricultural decline and increase infrastructure. While population growth, lack of financial resources, poor marketing and weak governance were identified as underlying drivers of LULC change. Similarly, findings of GIS data revealed massive increase in built-up (3.12%) areas and urbanization at the expense of agricultural and bare land (−15.7%) between 1987 and 2019.

Traditional use of non-timber forest products: Boon for livelihood security of people in Shivalik range of Jammu region

Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) play an important part in forest dwellers' livelihoods. The people are completely reliant on the forest for their survival. The forest provides people with a sense of well-being in their daily lives as well as economic benefits. The present exploratory study was conducted in Shivalik range of Jammu region to ascertain the role of identified NTFPs in the livelihood security of peasants. Participatory Rural Appraisal techniques were used to identify and document traditional NTFPs. The documented NTFPs were Patis (Aconitum chasmanthum), Gucchi (Morchella esculenta L.), Nag chhatri (Trillium govanianum), Banafsaha (Viola canescence), Dhoop (Jurinea macrocephala), Kaurd (Picorhiza kurroa), Muskbala (Valeriana hardwickii), Kasrot (Diplazium esculentum), Zakham-e- hiyat (Bergenia ciliata) which play a catalyst role in the livelihood of people of Shivalik range of Jammu region. The peasants of the area used to collect NTFPs from the nearby forest area and sell it to the local traders to earn their livelihood. It was evident from the data that NTFPs contribute to the tune of 29% to the average annual income of the collectors.

Palyno-morphological diversity of Asteraceous and Poaceous allergenic plant using microscopic techniques in lesser Himalaya-Pakistan.

In classification and identification of plant species, palyno morphological character has remain helpful for plant taxonomist. The aim to investigation this study was to identify the characteristic features of Asteraceae and Poaceae family member collected from lower Himalayas of Pakistan. Light microscope and Scanning electron microscope were used for feature study of allergenic pollen. Our study includes 10 species of Asteraceae and Poaceae family. The most dominant shape of pollen was Oblate-spheroidal, Prolate-Spheroidal, Prolate and Suboblate shape of pollen. Quantitative character of pollen includes maximum pollen diameter found in Dichanthium annulatum (46.0μm) and minimum polar axis pollen diameter found in Parthenium hysterophorous (16.0μm). Similarly highest value of P/E ratio was noted in Cenchrus echinatus (1.05) and smallest value of P/E ratio was observed in Erigeron bonariensis (0.88). Poaceae family member were monoporate. Character feature of exine sculpturing include Microechinate, granulate, echinate, conical base, lacunae Nanogammate, Aerolate-Scabratre, Verrucate, like variation found in exine of both family member. Highest value of pollen fertility was observed in P. hysterophorous 93%, Similarly maximum value of pollen sterility was noted in E. bonariensis and Brachiaria reptans 24%. This investigation provides the characteristic feature of allergenic pollen species and help to arrange them in define class. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: Pollen has affected many people around the world. Using microscopic techniques, morpho-palynological analysis of Asteraceae and Poaceae families were recognized. LM and SEM study show both qualitative and quantitative character of pollen. Identification of allergenic pollen and microscopic identified character play important role for proper guideline of identification of pollen having allergenic potential.

An introspection into impact of combine harvester: A tale of sustainable livelihood security

Adoption of combine harvester (CH) for wheat cultivation is crucial for enhancing the competitiveness of wheat industry. A study has been conducted in Lower Shivalik Hills of India during 2016–2020 to elucidate the adoption level and its impact in livelihood security. Results revealed that due to variation in significant determinants of adoption, the extent of adoption was low (36.67%). A comparative analysis of socio-agro- economic impact of combine and manual harvesting method revealed thatCH required only 2.5 hours for harvesting 1 ha land whereas, manual harvesting required 7–8 hours. Value of B:C and Rate of Return for using CH was 1:1.55 and 155 per cent, respectively. To measure economic efficiency SUR model was adopted and found the variety HD-3059 had 14 quintal/ha more grain yield than other varieties.After a financial scaleout of CH based crop varieties to get clarity on its adoptability across the country for sustained livelihood security, appropriate strategies for promoting CH have been Penned down.

Profile of Post Mortem Cases in Medical College of Lower Shivalik Hills

Profile of Post Mortem Cases in Medical College of Lower Shivalik Hills

Inscriptions of Nature: Geology and the Naturalization of Antiquity by Pratik Chakrabarti

Asian Perspectives, Vol. 62, No. 1 © 2023 by the University of Hawai‘i Press. Inscriptions of Nature: Geology and the Naturalization of Antiquity. Pratik Chakrabarti. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2020. i-xii+263 pp., 18 halftone figures, notes, bibliography, index. Hardcover. $54.95, ISBN 9781421438740 Reviewed by John R. Lukacs, University of Oregon, Eugene Inscriptions of Nature will appeal to diverse readers from a wide range of academic disciplines. Its eclectic synthesis of the origin and pervasive influence of the naturalization of India’s past is provocative and compelling. Chakrabarti seeks to understand how historical imagination was infused with the deep history of nature in colonial India. The volume will surely attract attention from anthropologists and historians, but students of Indian culture history and religion, as well as those with an interest in geology and prehistory, will find the book engaging. The author contends that the study of Indian antiquity was not confined to traditional disciplinary boundaries but was impacted by the interplay and fusion of natural and historical imaginations. The crossdisciplinary linkages explored in this engaging book suggests it will appeal to and enlighten scholars across a wide array of traditional academic specialties. Unappreciated and diverse intellectual threads between disciplines (i.e., Hindu theology, colonial history, mythology) and subjects of prehistory and archaeology, geology, and palaeontology are intertwined with issues of Indian social structure and ethnic identity. Dichotomies and linkages between tribes and castes and indigenous autochthones and newly arriving groups yield valuable insights into the naturalization of Indian antiquity, human origins, and evolution. I enjoyed the book immensely. This is in part because my eclectic range of academic research in South Asian archaeology, anthropology, human biological diversity, population history, geology, and palaeontology melds well with the book’s coverage. It is also because Chakrabarti’s innovative focus fostered new insights on how geology and deep history naturalized Indian antiquity. For example, I learned of the linkage between an autochthonous tribal group known as the Gonds of central India, their remote jungle habitat in an ancient geological landscape, and the naming of the southern supercontinent: Gondwana. Following a brief introduction describing the goals of the book and contextualizing the concepts of deep time and geohistory, four topics are addressed in some detail. The digging of the Doab Canal in 1820 by colonial engineers is documented in chapter 1 and interpreted as a key factor in creating a new naturalized narrative of antiquity. The event assumes broad ranging significance with archaeological and geological implications. The origin, evolution, and palaeontology of the Himalaya are detailed in the second chapter. Fossils from stratified sediments of the Siwalik hills and theories of human origins are interpreted to impart a greater naturalistic influence on Oriental antiquarianism and the work of linguist William Jones (1746-1794) (Kennedy 1994-1995). However, I was disappointed by Chakrabarti’s lack of reference to the numerous fossil apes recovered from the Miocene Pliocene Siwalik strata in the early 1900s by British geologists and paleontologists. The so-called ‘God apes’ of the Himalaya, initially named Ramapithecus, Sivapithecus, and Brahmapithecus, were critical to theories of human origins debates from 1965 to 1980 (Kennedy 2000). Their impact on understanding hominin evolution and origins of the human lineage coincide well with Chakrabarti’s focus in chapter 2, merging the geohistory of the Himalaya and Indo-Gangetic Plain with Orientalist and Indological ideas of Indian antiquity, yet they are not discussed. Though mythology and geology are not conceptually related disciplines in scientific minds, in chapter 3, Chakraborty investigates how Hindu mythologies became nineteenth century geomyths. Then he explores how myths assumed geological or deep history undertones. Early online release of book review in press. Himalayan shaligrams (marine fossil ammonites), venerated by Hindus as avatars of Vishnu, and the Puranic tortoise myths are analyzed to edify the unlikely associations of deep earth history with Hindu mythology. In his treatment of deep history and sacred geography in chapter 3, I found Charkabarti’s account of the history and significance of the giant fossil tortoise (Colossochelys atlas) captivating. British palaeontologists in Indian service were also students of Hindu religious texts; they argued that the giant tortoise could be the mythological tortoise of the Indian Puranas. Questions...