Low Female Participation Research Articles

Heterogeneity in labor income profiles: evidence from Turkey

In this paper, we investigate labor income profiles in Turkey. In doing so, we study the role of educational attainment, gender and the public versus private sector employment on labor income profiles by using the Turkish Statistical Institute’s Household Labour Force Survey micro-data from 2004 to 2018. We first report that while the average labor income profile in Turkey exhibits a moderate hump-shape over age, there exists an immense degree of heterogeneity in labor income trajectories over education, gender and the sector of employment. Second, while the public sector employment is more advantageous for low-educated Turkish employees, university graduates in Turkey’s labor market face a risk versus return trade-off in their choice of the sector of employment: the private sector labor income profiles display a similar level of average income but a higher degree of cross-sectional variation compared to their public sector counterparts. Third, we report a significant gender pay gap, especially among low-educated workers, which aligns well with historically low female participation rates in Turkey. Our findings via distributional clustering analysis, ordinary least squares and pseudo-panel estimations all indicate that in attempts to infer economy-wide average labor income profiles, abstracting away from any of these listed factors could lead to misleading inferences.

Contemporary Features of Rural Workers in India with a Focus on Gender and Caste

This paper explores the features of rural labour markets in the contemporary period with a focus on women workers, based on secondary data as well as the PARI archive of village data. The first argument is that the low female work participation ratio, as reported by labour force surveys, may be misleading. The picture is very different with time-use data: the majority of women are found to be engaged in economic activity, with clear seasonal variations. Secondly, women workers are more dependent on agriculture than male workers. The relative absence of non-agricultural employment among women workers is consistent with the argument that women face constraints to physical mobility and prefer employment near their homes. The third notable feature of recent times is that large numbers of women, from different social groups and economic classes, participated in the employment generated under National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme. This evidence put together suggests that if appropriate employment opportunities are provided, the number and proportion of women workers will rise. The fourth striking feature of rural labour markets is the persistence of a large gender gap in wages. Lastly, Scheduled Castes typically comprised the major share of the rural female labour force.

Determinants of Turkish female labour force participation: an analysis with manufacturing firm-level data

ABSTRACT Compared to other developing countries, Turkey has a very low female labour participation rate. Previous studies usually focus on the labour supply side of female employment. Unlike the previous literature, this paper investigates firm-level determinants of female employment in manufacturing firms using a unique micro data set constructed using different sources. After controlling for geographical variation, firm, and industry-specific factors, our results show that larger firms, exporter firms, firms with higher part-time worker ratio, and foreign-owned firms have higher female employment rate whereas younger firms, firms with higher labour productivity, and firms with long working hours have lower female employment rate.

The contribution of gender segregated secondary education on the progression to engineering

ABSTRACT The lack of female participation in engineering education and careers is a barrier to equality and the various economic benefits of a diverse workforce. The causes of gender inequality in engineering should be determined in order to design and implement appropriate remedial measures. This research determines the rate of single-sex high school attendance across genders in student enrolments at the University of Canterbury, College of Engineering between 2005 and 2017 (n = 5992). A psychology cohort (n = 11,698) was used as a comparator. The weighted average rate of female, single-sex high school attendance in engineering was 56.0% of all female students in engineering. This is 4.3x larger than the national average rate of 11.3%. In contrast, the male engineering, and both genders in psychology had a single-sex high school attendance rate of ~35.0%. Notably, the engineering disciplines that had low female participation had the highest rates of single-sex high school attendance. Hence, either single-sex girls’ high schools are effectively encouraging female participation in engineering or co-educational schools are failing to effectively encourage female participation in engineering. This research shows strong bias in a key educational goal across educational strategies, and may enable location of the origin of gender inequality in engineering education.

Determinants of Agricultural Output in Doba Woreda, Oromia National Regional State, Ethiopia

This Research was conducted to examine the determinant of agricultural output in Doba woreda. The objective of the study was to identify the major determinants of agricultural output in the study area. In order to achieve this objective, the study used both primary and secondary source of data. The primary data was collected through questionnaires and interviews. The secondary data was collected from agricultural office of the woreda and from other documents. The sampling technique was random sampling method with sample size of 100 respondents. The collected data was analyzed and interpreted using descriptive statistics. The majority farmers of the woreda live with large family size, small and fragmented land, large number of illiteracies, use traditional method of farming, and low female participation in the agricultural activities which lead agricultural productivity low. To avoid such problems, the woreda administration should be provide subsidy, credit with low interest rate, give training to illiterate to the farmers and also appreciate to use irrigation to avoid rainfall uncertainty.

EuropeaThe gender gap in pensionsin in Spain and the European Union

Las pensiones tienen como objetivo asegurar, mediante una retribución de carácter pecuniario, el mantenimiento de un nivel de vida digno en la etapa de retiro. Sin embargo, las de tipo contri- butivo se ven afectadas por las desigualdades entre hombres y mujeres que se van acumulando a lo largo de la vida laboral, dando como resultado otra inequidad: la brecha de género en las pensiones. Este trabajo pretende identificar los factores que inciden en esta diferencia, motivada por la menor implicación de la mujer en el mercado laboral, que se manifiesta tanto en una menor participación femenina en la fuerza de trabajo como en una elevada presencia de este colectivo en el empleo a tiempo parcial y la consiguiente mayor propensión a la intermitencia en la vida laboral de la mujer.

Bucking the Trend: Female Labor Market Participation in Kosovo

This paper adds to the limited research conducted on labor markets with low female labor force participation, providing the first multivariate analysis for Kosovo. The determinants of female labor force participation (FLFP) in Kosovo are investigated utilizing an eclectic model, comprising of individual, household, and socio-economic determinants, to analyze data from the Kosovo Labor Force Survey. Both supply and demand factors contribute to the explanation of the low FLFP in Kosovo. The results confirm that: age, marital status, education, labor market demand and the composition of the household are significant determinants of FLFP. These findings indicate the importance of taking a household level approach when analyzing labor force participation in countries with low female force participation.

Gender differences in mathematics and science competitions: A systematic review

AbstractGendered patterns in mathematics and science interest emerge in early childhood, develop over time, and ultimately reflect advanced course selection in secondary education. During the crucial time adolescents become aware of their strengths and interests and specialize accordingly, they get the opportunity to participate in out‐of‐school learning programs such as mathematics and science competitions. This raises the question whether mathematics and science competitions contribute to gender equity by equally promoting female and male interests. In this article, we present a systematic review on gender differences and the mechanisms explaining success and failure in mathematics and science competitions. On an international level, we found large gender differences regarding participation in all Olympiads with the exception of the biology Olympiad. In fairs and national Olympiads, overall participation rates were not gendered as such, but females preferred biology topics whereas males preferred physics related topics. Male and female achievement in fairs was comparable, but males clearly outperformed female participants at the Olympiads, with the smallest differences in the biology Olympiad. Variables and theoretical frameworks explaining participation and achievement and the role of gender in mathematics and science competitions are discussed. We suggest that gender stereotypes, through their influence on self‐concept and interest, play an important role in the mechanisms resulting in low female participation rates in and beyond mathematics and science competitions (especially in physics and chemistry). The mechanisms we found explaining female representation during a national selection competition might be considered as reflecting those in female mathematics or science careers and could thus serve as food for thought on countering the gender gap in mathematics and science.

Women’s participation and the gender perspective in sustainable forestry in Cambodia: local perceptions and the context of forestry research

We analyzed local stakeholders’ perceptions on women’s engagement in sustainable forestry and the challenges women face. We additionally examined the publication of scientific papers on women’s participation and gender perspectives in forestry research. We employed Kendall’s W to examine the concordance of local peoples’ assessment of the knowledge of rural women related to forestry, the major barriers preventing women participating effectively in sustainable forestry and the tasks required to engage women better. The study revealed only very weak agreement regarding the knowledge of rural women about forestry (Kendall’s W = 0.47, p < .000). Local people considered women knew most about sustainable forestry and use of forest for various purposes and less about the trees and forests. The study found moderate agreement (Kendall’s W = .118, p < .000) concerning the major barriers preventing women participating effectively in sustainable forestry, with the most significant barrier being low female participation in decision-making bodies. There was very weak agreement on the highest priority task required to engage women better in forestry management (Kendall’s W = .035, p < .000). Quantitative content analysis was used to analyze the scientific papers. From 1992 to September 2018, 537 scientific papers were published in 171 journals, with study sites in 83 countries, related to women and gender in 1) forest, 2) REDD + and 3) community-based forestry. The countries most covered by the research were: Indonesia (27 articles), India (39), United States (45) and Nepal (51). There was a significant increase in the number of papers on women’s participation and gender mainstreaming in 1) forest (n = 482), and 2) community-based forestry (n = 20) from 2007, and in 3) REDD + discourses (n = 34) from 2011. This study suggests further scientific research is needed on women’s participation and gender perspective in sustainable forestry and environmental concerns if the collective action needed for sustainable forest management is to be effectively addressed.

Затраты времени на домашнюю работу: детерминанты гендерного неравенства

На основе данных Выборочного наблюдения использования суточного фонда времени населением, проведенного Федеральной службой государственной статистики Российской Федерации в 2014 г., были проанализированы факторы, влияющие на распределение домашних обязанностей и обязанностей по уходу за близкими между партнерами, оценена значимость влияния ряда параметров, а также определен вклад, который вносят основные факторы в гендерный разрыв в объемах домашнего труда.&#x0D; В работе показано, что значимый эффект на распределение домашних обязанностей между партнерами оказывают состояние их здоровья, наличие и возраст детей, статус и режим занятости партнеров, вклад женщины в общие доходы, применение в домохозяйстве трудосберегающих технологий, наличие других членов домохозяйства, малое число жилых комнат и небольшой размер населенного пункта.&#x0D; Кроме того, на эмпирических данных подтверждается тезис о незавершенном гендерном переходе, когда наряду с экономическими мотивами в распределении домашнего труда между партнерами сохраняются рудиментные социокультурные мотивы. Высокий уровень занятости и доходов женщин сокращает их участие в домашнем хозяйстве только в будние дни; в течение выходных дней они стремятся компенсировать свою роль «главного провайдера домашних услуг» для домочадцев.

Attracting women into male-dominated trades: Views of young women in Australia

Context: The persistent low female participation in male-dominated trades is not attracting a high level of public attention and policy action. There are determined, yet adhoc actions by advocates in response to evidence that economic benefits will be derived for industry and women through increased female participation in the male-dominated trades. Occupational segregation of the trades remains resistant to change. &#x0D; Methods: To better understand the barriers limiting female participation in the male-dominated trades from the perspective of young women, this PhD study features interviews with female secondary students, complemented by interviews with industry stakeholders and a quantitative analysis of VET and trade participation data. The three primary research questions are: 1) What is the extent of gender segregation in vocational education and training (VET) and typically male-dominated trades in Australia, and how does this compare internationally? 2) Why do very few female students choose male-dominated trades as their job pathway? 3) What can be done, particularly in the education and training sectors, to increase female interest in, and take-up of, the male-dominated trades?&#x0D; Findings: The results of this research showed that the composition of trade-qualified females in male-dominated trades is persistently low at 2-3%. The views of young women affirmed the evidence showing system-wide barriers limit female interest in these trades. Most influential is that gender stereotypes of work are set by Year 10 and that female enrolment in Maths (a pre-requisite for male-dominated careers) is low; these trades are seen as “jobs for the boys who don’t do academic,” and the fear of intimidation and harassment deters young women. Low enrolment of female students in male-dominated trade courses indicates that this entrenched occupational segregation of the trades will remain resistant to change for some time to come.&#x0D; Conclusion: The findings indicate that ad hoc responses to overcome gender segregation of the trades is not effective. Influenced by systems theory and a social ecological model (SEM) of change, the researchers promote the need for sustained, nation-wide awareness and action involving VET and school sectors, industry, government and trade unions to attract more women into male-dominated trades.

Public Attention to Gender Equality and the Demand for Female Directors

We explore whether demand factors contribute to low female board participation. We use time-varying public attention to gender equality as a shock that differentially affects the demand for female directors of firms with different ex ante culture towards gender equality. We find that public attention is associated with an increase in female board representation, especially in firms whose ex ante culture is more sympathetic to gender equality. Furthermore, public attention to gender equality changes the way female directors are recruited. First, the pool of female directors broadens without any obvious compromises on quality. Second, public attention to gender equality reduces the probability that connected men are appointed, leading to higher female board representation.

Impact of globalisation on economic growth and employment in India with special reference to Kerala

Focusing on the linkage between globalisation and its impact on employment and development Bhalla (2008) mentioned that advent of globalization may result in increased displacement of unskilled or low skilled labour as demand would be more high-skilled centric. Considering it, in this paper, using secondary level data, we have tried to assess the impact of globalisation on economic growth and employment in India with special reference to Kerala. Our data analysis revealed that globalisation had a positive impact on economic growth but the effect on employment is a mixed one. From 1993 to 2000, 24.18 million jobs were added. According to Bhalla (2008) the number of unemployed in India rose from 3.98 million in 1973–74 to 9.15 by 1999–00 and further to 11.21 million by 2004–05. Against this backdrop, we have made an assessment of employment in most literate state of the country viz. Kerala. Data depicted that unemployment levels are highest in Kerala and its prime reason being lack in skills. Kerala has shown a very dismissal picture in terms of higher education enrolment which can be treated as a proxy for skill-based education. As per NSSO 68th around Kerala has only 21% persons enrolled in higher education in 2011. Another reason for high unemployment rates is low participation of females and lack of skill-based education among them. Thus, the study concludes that skill and employability of Indian labour force is quite low and therefore globalisation has proved not been very rewarding. Globalisation and free trade enables countries especially developing ones to utilise their abundant labour and increase flow of trade but this can be done only when labour force is well equipped to compete with world. In order to reap the benefits of globalisation, the study suggests expansion of higher education, reduction in gender disparities in education and promotion of skill development programmes.

La situación actual de la participación política de las mujeres de Tonalá, Puerto Morazan, 2016

En los últimos años en Nicaragua se ha fomentado la participación de la mujer en todos los niveles de la sociedad, con el fin de que estas se sientan parte y se apropien también del desarrollo de las comunidades. En Nicaragua, el área en la que más se ha visto esta participación ha sido en el ámbito político, donde incluso se han reformado leyes que promueven la participación equitativa de las mujeres, en todos los procesos de elección política. Sin embargo, es relevante conocer, si estos objetivos planteados por el gobierno central, están llegando también a las mujeres de las comunidades rurales, si se ha promovido la participación femenina con el mismo auge que se promueve en las urbes; para ello se plantea conocer los índices de participación de las mujeres de la comunidad de Tonalá, a través de encuesta distribuidas por los 12 barrios de la comunidad y aplicadas a 193 mujeres, donde se comprobó la baja participación feme- nina a pesar de todas las políticas públicas que fomentan la misma.

Returns to Education and Female Participation Nexus: Evidence from India

In this paper, we aim to understand whether low labour market returns to education in India are responsible for low female work participation. The National Sample Survey Office—Employment Unemployment Survey unit level data of India for the year 2011–2012 is used to examine the relationship between educational attainment and labour market participation through gender lens. Results show that women’s education has a U-shaped relationship with paid work participation. The probability to participate in the paid labour market increases with education levels higher than compulsory secondary schooling. The labour market returns to education are insignificant and low for lower levels of education, increasing significantly along the educational levels. Technical education equivalent to degree level or above has high returns for men and women. However, women with technical education have very low levels of participation. Vocational training also provides a positive return. Our results suggest that to increase participation, women need to be educated above secondary level and receive broader technical education and more vocational training.

The BRIC and African Countries’ Informal Economies: Differences, Similarities and Some General Observations

ABSTRACTThis study examines whether African countries can learn from the experiences of BRIC countries that have informal economies. Our analysis revealed that some characteristics of the informal economy are common in both the BRIC and the select African group. The study found that the size of the economy does not tell the full story about the informal economy, and that post-conflict economies have a higher proportion of informal economy. Countries with the largest informal economies have had the greatest decline. Further, the absolute size of the informal economy is greater in both groups, resulting in more people working in the informal sector than official records would indicate. Moreover, countries with high female labour participation registered a far greater reduction in their informal economies than those countries with low female labour participation. All in all, limited availability of quality data on the nature, structure, behavior and consequences of the informal economy and its relations with the rest of the economy and society need to be overcome for a better understanding of the informal economy and informed development policymaking.

Changing Dimensions of Women Status in Punjab

The present study examines the changing Dimensions of women status in Punjab. The study was based on secondary data collected from various government and reputed sources. The study revealed that sex ratio in Punjab improved from 876 in 2001 to 893 in 2011 but it is much less than the national average of 943. Sex Ratio in 0–6 age group has improved but is less than the national average. There has been a marginal improvement in daughter preference over the time from 1992–2007. Female work participation rate (FWPR) has declined by 5.2 percent in 2011 from the previous census. Low female work participation denies women from becoming economically empowered in Punjab. Participation of women employment under MNREGS projects a healthy trend in Punjab. While comparing the life expectancy of Punjab with all India, it is observed that both males and female of Punjab have better life expectancy at 67.4 and 71.6 respectively as compared to 64.6 and 67.8 for national average respectively. The state achieved female literacy rate of 70.7percent which was lower than male literacy of 80.4percent in 2011. Punjab ranked 14th in Human and Gender development indicators (HDI and GDI) among 32 states/UTs but value of GDI was less than HDI indicating low status of women. The reasons for low status of women were various social formations that regulate their lives and the patriarchal setup.

Gender Differences of Perceived Leadership Skills Among Saudi Students

The aim of this study is to examine female participation in Saudi labor market as leaders. The leadership skills with whichstudents in Saudi universities and colleges can how educational institutions make their students career ready. However,considering the low female participation in the Saudi labor market, exploring the gender differences in leadership skills isequally crucial as the leadership skills acquired in higher education institution can significantly influence employmentopportunities. In addition, the gender differences in perceived leadership skills is the fact that the social roles assigned to womenin Saudi society bear great significance on how they perceive their skills, which will be discussed further in the discussionportion of this paper.

What influences professional women’s career advancement in construction?

Research on professional women’s careers in the construction industry has focused on explanations for their under-achievement and the barriers they experience, many of which are outside their personal control. However, some women are progressing, so it is important to understand what facilitates this process. Using a theoretical framework, involving individual, interpersonal and organizational factors, a cross-sectional correlational field study involving 456 professional women investigated the effect of a range of variables on career advancement. Individual factors rather than interpersonal and organizational factors were found to have the greatest influence on women’s career progression. This finding, contrary to previous women in construction research, indicates a “contest”, rather than “sponsored”, career mobility path. The research contributes to the understanding of the career advancement of women, highlighting issues with previous research which has identified mentoring, networks and other organizational support mechanisms as valuable to women’s advancement. It provides evidence that promotional processes have a potential gender bias, and while networks, mentoring and other forms of organizational support do not assist women with promotion, they are a valuable deterrent to women’s departure from an industry struggling with low female participation and retention.

Returns to Education and Female Participation Nexus: Evidence from India

In this paper, we make an attempt to understand whether low labour market returns to education in India are responsible for low female work participation. The National Sample Survey Office (NSSO) Employment Unemployment Survey (EUS) unit level data of India for the year 2011–12 is used to examine the relationship between educational attainment and labour market participation through gender lens. Results show that women's education has a U-shaped relationship with paid work participation. The probability to participate in the paid labour market shows an increasing trend with education levels higher than compulsory secondary schooling. The labour market returns to education are insignificant and low for lower levels of education. The returns increase significantly along with the increase in educational levels. However, females have a significant lower rate of return for each year of education as compared to men in rural and urban labour markets as well. Though it has been said that increase in female enrolment in schooling is one of the reasons of the recent declining phenomenon of female participation, but our study shows that the low returns to education is another reason for their less participation. The findings therefore suggest that, women need to be educated above secondary level to become visible in the labour market.