Low Acid Value Research Articles

Characterization of oil extracted from wild apricot seeds kernel using submerged alcoholic fermentation and its quality characteristics

The current study investigated the impact of Saccharomyces cerevisiae fermentation on apricot kernel oil extraction and the resulting quality characteristics of the oil. The seed kernels underwent physicochemical and antioxidant studies after being separated, gelatinized, and fermented. The results revealed 43.6% of oil yield by fermentation. The extracted oil had a lower acid value (3.74 mg KOH/g), and peroxide value (4.25 meq/kg). The investigation of additional oil properties was included, like iodine value (100.26 mg KOH/g), saponification value (190.5 mg KOH/g), specific gravity (0.919), viscosity (4.62), moisture content (0.592%), and refractive index (1.4836), which signifies optimum physicochemical parameters of oil. As per the FTIR data, some distinct functional groups like C-H stretch and CO, CC, CH3, OH, and R-O-R esters were found in the extracted oil. The oil's fatty acid composition, with 50.47% saturated, 22.23% mono-unsaturated, and 35.13% polyunsaturated fatty acids, enhances stability, oxidative resistance, and nutritional value, justifying its favorable physicochemical properties. The DPPH radical scavenging activity of the oil showed to have good antioxidant activity. Metabolic modeling of S. cerevisiae provided information about compounds received after fermentation. Hence, it can be concluded that fermentation is a suitable approach to extract apricot seed kernel oil with beneficial properties.

Preparation and Characterization of Fish Oil Pickering Emulsions Stabilized by Resveratrol-Loaded Gliadin/Chitin Nanocrystal Composite Nanoparticles.

Unsaturated fatty acids present in fish oil offer various physiological benefits to the human body. However, their susceptibility to oxidation severely limits their potential applications. The purpose of this study was to develop Pickering emulsions stabilized from a composite of resveratrol-loaded gliadin nanoparticles and oxidized chitin nanocrystals (GR/OC) to protect fish oil from oxidation. The effects of the GR/OC composite on the characterizations of fish oil Pickering emulsions were investigated, including the microstructure, physicochemical properties (stability and rheological behavior), and digestion properties in vitro. The results revealed that an increased concentration of the GR/OC composite significantly reduced the droplet size and improved the ambient stability of the emulsions (in terms of pH, ionic strength, temperature, and storage time). Confocal laser scanning microscopy images depicted that the GR/OC nanoparticles were uniformly dispersed at the interface between water and fish oil (W-O interface). This distribution formed a protective envelope around the droplets. Remarkably, the addition of 2% GR/OC nanoparticles stabilized the Pickering emulsions and showed the most positive effect on the antioxidant capacity compared to that of the control group. These stabilized emulsions maintained lower peroxide values and acid values, which were 1.5 times less than those of the blank control during the 14 day accelerated oxidation experiment. Furthermore, the Pickering emulsions stabilized by GR/OC nanoparticles exhibited the ability to protect fish oil from contamination by gastric juices and facilitate the intestinal absorption of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. The findings suggest that these GR/OC-stabilized Pickering emulsions offer a promising alternative for delivering fish oils in various industries, including the food industry.

Feasibility Study of Developing an Eco-Friendly Bio Lubricant from Flaxseed Oil

The increasing global demand for sustainable and environmentally friendly lubricants has led to the exploration of bio-based alternatives. This study focuses on the production of a bio- lubricant using Flax Seed oil as the feedstock through an epoxidation process followed by acid testing. The first step involves the epoxidation of Flax Seed, where the unsaturated fatty acids present in the oil are converted into epoxides. This process is carried out using a catalyst and a peroxide source. The reaction conditions, such as temperature, time, and reactant ratios, are optimized to achieve the highest conversion and selectivity of epoxidized Flax Seed oil. The epoxidized Flax Seed is then subjected to acid testing to evaluate its suitability as a bio- lubricant. The acid value, which measures the amount of acidic compounds present, is determined. A low acid value indicates good stability and resistance to oxidation. Additionally, the viscosity, flash point and other relevant properties are assessed to ensure that the bio- lubricant meets industry standards. The results of the acid testing provide valuable insights into the quality and performance of the produced bio-lubricant. By analyzing the acid value and other properties, the effectiveness of the epoxidation process and the feasibility of using Flax Seed oil as a sustainable feedstock for bio-lubricant production can be determined. This research contributes to the development of eco-friendly lubricants by utilizing Flax Seed oil as a renewable resource. The epoxidation process and subsequent acid testing serve as crucial steps in the production and evaluation of bio-lubricants, highlighting their potential as a viable alternative to conventional petroleum-based lubricants

Sustainable fish oil extraction from catfish visceral biomass: A comparative study between high-shear homogenization and high-frequency ultrasound on wet rendering process

Traditional wet rendering leads to the degradation of polyunsaturated fatty acids in fish oil. Therefore, we combined this method with high-shear homogenization and high-frequency ultrasound to extract oil from Clarias magur visceral biomass. This way, we aimed to achieve higher oil yield, shorter extraction times, and a better preservation of polyunsaturated fatty acids. High-shear homogenization and high-frequency ultrasound increased the oil yields by 9.17 and 10.55%, respectively, compared to traditional wet rendering. The oil quality was also improved, with lower acid and peroxide values. Scanning electron microscopy confirmed enhanced cell disruption for increasing the oil extraction efficiency. Fourier transfer infrared spectroscopy also proved the efficacy of homogenization and ultrasound pretreatment in enhancing the extraction of polyunsaturated fatty acids from C. magur visceral biomass. Their content showed a significant variation among different extraction methods. Specifically, the high-frequency ultrasound method resulted in a notable 15.1% increase, while the high-shear homogenization method demonstrated a significant 13.3% increase, compared to the wet rendering method (control). The oil extracted by the high-frequency ultrasound method demonstrated a 7.5% increase in eicosatetraenoic acid and a 11.7% increase in docosahexaenoic acid, as compared to the oil obtained from the control method. High-shear homogenization and high-frequency ultrasound shortened the extraction time and reduced the temperature requirements for oil extraction from wet biomass. These techniques have potential for efficient fish oil extraction, valuable in the healthcare and food industries.

Novel Electromagnetic Heat Hydrodistillation for Extraction of Essential Oil from Tangerine Peel.

A novel electromagnetic heat method is presented for green extraction of natural compounds from peel residue. In the processing cavity obtained through 3D printing, a core made of amorphous alloy was applied to strengthen the magnetic flux. During the process, an induced electric field was produced in the extract medium owing to an oscillating magnetic field at 50 kHz rather than a pair of electrodes; thus, electrochemical reactions could be avoided. A thermal effect and temperature rise were observed under the field, and essential oil was obtained via this electromagnetic heat hydrodistillation. In addition, the numerical relationships between magnetic field, induced electric field (IEF), induced current density, and temperature profile were elaborated; they were positively correlated with the extraction yield of essential oils. It was found that the waveforms of the magnetic field, induced electric field, and excitation voltage were not consistent. Using a higher magnetic field resulted in high current densities and terminal temperatures in the extracts, as well as higher essential oil yields. When the magnetic field strength was 1.39 T and the extraction time was 60 min, the maximum yield of essential oil reached 1.88%. Meanwhile, conventional hydrodistillation and ohmic heating hydrodistillation were conducted for the comparison; all treatments had no significant impact on the densities. In addition, the essential oil extracted by electromagnetic heat had the lowest acid value and highest saponification value. The proportion of monoterpenoids and oxygen-containing compounds of essential oil extracted by this proposed method was higher than the other two methods. In the end, the development of this electromagnetic heat originating from magnetic energy has the potential to recover high-value compounds from biomass waste.

High-altitude accessions of Capsicum baccatum and C. pubescens as rootstocks to enhance suboptimal-temperature tolerance of pepper

This study evaluated the effectiveness of rootstocks germplasm to enhance the chilling tolerance of Capsicum annum L. We compared 2 accessions of C. baccatum, i.e., CB 5 and CB 9, and 3 accessions of C. pubescens, i.e., CP 2, CP 3, and CP 4, together with commercial controls across 3 experiments. Experiment 1 (Exp 1) aimed to evaluate these genotypes adaptation compared to rootstock cv. ‘Capsifort’ to chilling temperatures and was performed in growth chambers for 28 days under two thermal regimes, i.e. optimal (25–15 °C for 12 h/day) and suboptimal (15–5 °C for 12 h/day). In Exp 2 the scion cv. Tiberio was grafted onto these rootstocks and grown under suboptimal temperature for 28 days in comparison to ungrafted control. Exp 3 evaluated the same graft combinations in a commercial greenhouse, to assess the effects of grafting on fruit yield and quality of the scion ‘Tiberio’ compared to ungrafted and self-grafted controls. In Exp 1, CP 3 showed the best photosynthetic performances, whereas CP 2 and CP 3 outperformed ‘Capsifort’ for plant biomass under suboptimal temperature. In Exp 2, chlorophyll fluorescence was higher in the combination ‘Tiberio’/CB 9 than in ‘Tiberio’, while ‘Tiberio’/CP 3 had a higher photosynthetic rate. The stomatal conductance was higher in ‘Tiberio’/CP 3 and ‘Tiberio’/CP 4 than in ‘Tiberio’. All the graft combinations reduced the leaf proline content compared to the ungrafted plants. In Exp 3 the graft combinations ‘Tiberio’/‘Capsifort’, ‘Tiberio’/CB 5, ‘Tiberio’/CB 9 and ‘Tiberio’/CP 3 produced the highest marketable yields, but ‘Tiberio’/’Capsifort’, ‘Tiberio’/CB 5, and ‘Tiberio’/CB 9 had the highest number of discarded fruits per plant. ‘Tiberio’/CP 2 fruits had lower titratable acidity values than ‘Tiberio’, whereas ‘Tiberio’/CB 9 had the highest antioxidant activity. Overall, our results showed that CB 9 and CP 3 consistently proved positive performance on ‘Tiberio’, while CP 2 performed well under low temperature conditions only.

Multifaceted analysis of the effects of roasting conditions on the flavor of fragrant Camellia oleifera Abel. seed oil

Fragrant Camellia oleifera Abel. seed oil (FCSO), produced by a roasting process, is popular for its characteristic aroma. This study investigated the effects of various roasting temperatures (90℃, 120℃, 150℃, 180℃) and durations (20 min, 40 min, 60 min) on the flavor of FCSO by physicochemical properties, hazardous substances, sensory evaluation, and flavor analyses. The results showed that FCSO roasted at 120℃/20 min had a reasonable fatty acid composition with a lower acid value (0.16 mg/g), peroxide value (0.13 g/100 g), p-anisidine value (2.27), dibutyl phthalate content (0.04 mg/kg), and higher 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl free radical scavenging activity (224.51 μmol TE/kg) than other samples. A multivariate analysis of FCSO flavor revealed that the 120℃/20 min group had a higher grassy flavor score (5.3 score) from nonanoic acid and a lower off-flavor score (2.2 score) from 2-methylbutyric acid. The principal component analysis showed that 120℃/20 min could guarantee the best flavor and quality of FCSO. Therefore, this information can guide the preparation of FCSO.

Aqueous enzymatic extraction of macauba (Acrocomia aculeata) pulp oil: A green and sustainable approach for high-quality oil production

Aqueous enzymatic extraction (AEE) of macauba pulp oil (MPO) was performed in this study with five commercial enzymatic pools. The chemical, nutritional, and thermal properties of the oils with high oil efficiency by AEE were evaluated and compared with mechanical pressing (MP) and organic solvent extraction (SE). Among the AEE processes, the pectinase pool (at pH 5.5 and 50 °C) exhibited the highest process efficiency (88.6 %). The oils presented low acidity values (0.4–3.1 %) and low molar absorptivities, indicating minimal oil degradation. Bioactive compounds, such as carotenoids, were found in MPO. The iodine index and the fatty acid profile of the oils revealed a high content of unsaturated fatty acids, particularly oleic and linoleic acids, with excellent nutritional scores, as evidenced by anti-atherogenicity and anti-thrombogenicity indices. These findings emphasized that AEE is an eco-friendly approach for extracting high-quality MPO with beneficial health compounds for food products.

Inhibition of protein denaturation and oxidation of prepared shrimp paste by sturgeon skin collagen peptide

This study investigated the cryoprotective effect of different concentrations (0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5%, 2.0%, and 2.5%) of sturgeon skin collagen peptides (CPs) on the changes in protein denaturation, oxidation, and overall quality of prepared shrimp paste during 180 d cryopreservation. Compared with phosphates and sorbitol, higher concentrations (>1.5%) of CPs minimized the denaturation and oxidation of protein with higher protein solubility, thermal transition enthalpy, and less carbonyl formation. Meanwhile, the decrease of hydrogen and ionic bonding was inhibited accompanied by less thawing loss and cooking loss. Compared with sorbitol, CPs at all concentrations contributed to less antioxidant effect in retarding the lipid oxidation after 180 d, however still exhibited lower thiobarbituric acid values than the control. The freshness of the 2.5% CPs group and sorbitol group was well maintained with the total volatile basic nitrogen value kept under 20 mg/100 g. Furthermore, a compact and less-aggregated gel matrix was observed during frozen storage. These findings indicate that CPs posed dose-dependent cryoprotective effects on shrimp paste, representing it as a comparable alternative to polyphosphates or sorbitol for seafood cryopreservation.

Quality of oil extracted by cold press from Nigella sativa seeds conditioned and pre-treated by microwave.

Black cumin (Nigella sativa) seed (BS) oil has received much interest in the food and pharmaceutical industries due to its valuable nutritional properties, but this oil has low oxidative stability. The effect of microwave pre-treatment at 0 to 2.5 min and conditioning with different buffers at pH 3 to 9 of BS, before oil extraction by cold press, were investigated. The oil extraction yield was higher; acid value (AV) and peroxide value (PV) were lower in the oil extracted from seeds, which were first microwaved and then moisturized and vice versa. BS with pH 3, microwave time of 1.25 min, and moisturizing level of 5%, which gave oil extraction yield of 27.2%, AV of (2.9 mg NaOH/g oil), and PV of (8.3 meq O2/kg oil), was selected as an optimum sample and its quality changes were investigated during storage compared with the oil extracted from the control sample (without any pre-treatment). In conclusion, the oil extracted from the pre-treated BS had higher bioactive components and lower AV and PV during the storage; therefore, microwave radiation and pH adjustment before oil extraction from BS by cold press are recommended.

Analysis of a novel high-speed homogenizer technique for methyl ester production using waste cooking oil: Multi-objective optimization and energy analysis

While fossil fuels continue to be the predominant energy source, the use of renewable energy is consistently growing. Biodiesel, with its various advantages over traditional fossil fuels, stands out as a promising alternative fuel that is produced from a sustainable and abundant waste cooking oil (WCO) via a transesterification reaction (due to the low acid value of WCO) with alcohol (MeOH) and homogeneous catalyst (KOH) in a high-speed homogenizer. Biodiesel is produced in the industry using conventional mechanical stirring techniques, which are time-consuming and less efficient. It has been recently reported that high-speed homogenizers have the scale-up potential as per industrial requirements and can significantly reduce the transesterification/esterification reaction time. In the present investigation, the Taguchi technique has been applied for the design of experiments and multi-response process optimization using a composite desirability approach. The optimized values observed for yield, yield efficiency, and pour point were 99.18 ± 0.2%, 5.4 × 10–3 g/J, and − 14.9 ± 0.5 °C, respectively, at alcohol to oil molar proportion of 7:1, KOH amount of 0.5 wt%, rotor speed of 14000 rpm and 10 min of process time. The physicochemical properties of produced biodiesel were found within EN 14214 and ASTM D6751 standards limits.

Comparative Analysis of Physicochemical Properties of Oils from Groundnut, Melon, Watermelon and Orange Seeds

This study analyzed and compared the physicochemical properties of oils produced from groundnut, melon, watermelon and orange seeds. The moisture content, saponification value, iodine value, peroxide value, acid value, free fatty acid, ester value, refractive index, viscosity, density, specific gravity, cloud point, pour point, flash point and fire point of the oils were analyzed. There were no significant differences in iodine value, peroxide value, refractive index, viscosity, specific gravity, cloud point, pour point, flash point and fire point, while there were significant differences in the moisture content, saponification value, acid value, free fatty acid, ester value, and density, The results revealed that these oils contain low fatty acid value and they are good sources of edible oil as they have low acid value. These oils also have great potentials as industrially promising oils, with their high saponification and iodine values, they will be good raw materials for bio-lubricant production and for a variety of industrial applications.

Characterization of Oils from Sandbox, Melon and Watermelon Seeds

This study examined the physicochemical properties and phytochemical composition of oils from sandbox (Hura crepitans), melon (Citrullus colocynthis L) and watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) seeds. Physicochemical and phytochemical analyses of the oils were carried out using American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) and Association of Official Analytical Chemist (AOAC) standards procedures. Sandbox oil had highest saponification value, iodine value, acid value, ester value, viscosity, cloud point and pour point with lowest moisture content, free fatty acid, peroxide value, flash point and fire point when compare with oils from melon and water melon seeds. Oils from melon and water melon seeds have low acid value, which means it can be used as a good source of edible oil. The phytochemical screening of the oils revealed the presence of saponins, deoxysugar, terpenoids, cardinolides and steroids. These results revealed that oils from sandbox seed, melon and water melon seed have great potentials as industrially promising oils, with their high saponification and iodine values, they will be good raw materials for bio-lubricant production and for a variety of industrial applications.

Analysis of immune cells and risk factors related to lower limb deep vein thrombosis in patients with cerebral infarction.

This study retrospectively analyzed data from 174 patients with cerebral infarction admitted to The Rehabilitation Department of Shanghai Fifth Rehabilitation Hospital and Shanghai First People's Hospital from June 2022 to June 2023. Based on the results of lower limb venous color Doppler ultrasound examinations, patients were divided into two groups: the LDVT group (35 cases) and the non-LDVT group (139 cases). We compared the clinical data and hematologic indicators (D-dimer value, fibrinogen, white blood cells, platelets, uric acid, creatinine, etc.) of the two groups to identify the risk factors of cerebral infarction complicated with LDVT. Statistical analysis revealed that the D-dimer values of the LDVT group were significantly (P<0.05) higher than those of the non-LDVT group. The uric acid value of the LDVT group was significantly lower than that of the non-LDVT group, with statistical significance (P<0.05). The Brunnstrom staging in the LDVT group was significantly different from that in the non-LDVT group (P<0.05). Meanwhile, binary logistic regression analysis showed that LDVT complicated with cerebral infarction was associated with D-dimer level [OR=1.302, 95% CI (1.077, 1.575)], uric acid level [OR=0.995, 95% CI (0.990, 1.000)], and Brunnstrom staging [OR=3.005, 95% CI (1.312, 6.880)]. D-dimer value, uric acid value, and Brunnstrom stage I to II are closely related to the occurrence of LDVT in patients with cerebral infarction. High D-dimer value, low uric acid value, and Brunnstrom stage I to II are independent risk factors for LDVT in cerebral infarction. Early assessment of D-dimer value, uric acid value, and Brunnstrom stage of cerebral infarction should be considered in clinical practice.

Evaluation of the potential of matoa (Pometia pinnata) leaf extract as an antioxidant activity in pasteurized milk

The research objective was to study the influence of the addition of matoa (Pometia pinnata) leaf extract (MLE) and various pasteurization methods (PM) on the antioxidant activity (AA) and physicochemical characteristics of pasteurized milk (PMi). The MLE was added at the level of 0%, 0.05%, 0.10%, 0.15%, and 0.20% into milk and pasteurized to low temperature for long-time pasteurization (LTLT) (63°C for 30 min) or a high-temperature short time (HTST) (72°C for 15 s). The HTST method increased AA and reduced the viscosity of pasteurized milk. On the other hand, the LTLT PMi showed lower thiobarbituric acid (TBA) values, improving whiteness, specific flavor, and taste among panelists. Each level of MLE affected AA, TBA values, and viscosity during pasteruization of milk under different conditions. Nevertheless, the relationship between MLE and PM did not milk. PMi exhibited an AA range from 14.05% to 57.79%, with an average AA of 34.36% for the LTLT method and 43.13 for the HTST method. In the LTLT method, the average TBA value for PMi was 0.08 mg MDA/kg, compared to 0.15 mg MDA/kg for the HTST method. Similarly, the average fat content in PMi was slightly higher for the LTLT method (0.98 %) than for the HTST (0.95%). PMi supplemented with MLE in both pasteurization methods exhibited viscosity levels ranging from 5 to 15 mPa.s. The preference test revealed that panelists generally favored the color white of the milk. Approximately 56% of panelists stated that the aroma and taste of the milk remained strong even with the addition of the MLE, with the most preferred sensory combination being the addition of 0.2% MLE with the HTST method of matoa leaf extract to pasteurized milk can be an innovation in the dairy industry to obtain healthful, functional pasteurized milk.

Radio frequency roasting promotes the degradation of aflatoxin B1 and achieves better quality of peanuts (Arachis hypogaea L.)

Peanuts contaminated with aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) possess serious health risks. Radio frequency (RF) roasting was used for decontamination of AFB1 in peanuts. The effects of RF roasting on AFB1 degradation and peanuts quality were investigated under varied electrode gaps (90, 100, 110, and 120 mm), target temperatures (120, 130, 140, and 150 °C) and initial moisture contents (10%, 15%, 20%, and 25%). The results showed that corn grit as the assistant material was superior for improving the heating uniformity of peanuts. With increasing target temperature and moisture content, the degradation rate of AFB1 increased significantly from 20.05% to 75.33% and 35.52%–66.09%, respectively, while electrode gap had no significant effect on the degradation of AFB1. Compared with hot air roasting (140 °C), RF roasting increased the degradation rate of AFB1 by 18%, with lower acid value and less tissue damage. Fourier transform infrared spectrum and scanning electron micrographs revealed the development of lipid hydrolysis, Maillard reaction and protein denaturation in roasted peanuts. RF roasting under 110–120 mm electrode gap, 140 °C target temperature, and 15%–20% initial moisture content was optimal considering both AFB1 degradation and products quality. Overall, RF roasting provides a new insight for the degradation of AFB1 in foods and crops.

Enzymatic methods for the preparation of fragrant rapeseed oil: Effect of reducing sugars on flavor production using the Maillard reaction

This study investigated the effects of different reducing sugars (glucose, fructose, and maltose) on quality and flavor during the enzymatic preparation of fragrant rapeseed oils (FROs) through Maillard reaction. The FROs was determined using sensory and physiochemical analyses. The fructose group had a reasonable fatty acid composition, lower acid value (1.28 mg/g), peroxide value (0.12 g/100g), moisture (0.08%), and benzo(a)pyrene content (1.43 μg/kg); higher total tocopherol content (597.78 mg/kg), sterol content (790.00 mg/kg), and sensory evaluation score (3.81 score); a sweeter nutty/toasted flavor and a weaker spicy flavor. The flavor was attributed to the presence of furfural, a sweet-tasting compound, and the nitrile content, which was responsible for the spicy flavor, was lower than that of traditional FROs, resulting in weaker spiciness. Overall, the results suggest that fructose is the best reducing sugar for enzymatic preparation of FROs, providing key directives for the industrial production of FROs.

Green synthesis and structure characterization of resveratrol conjugated linoleate.

To improve the stability and broaden the application of resveratrol (Res), the Res conjugated linoleate (RCL) were synthesized successfully using Res and 9c,11t-conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) with N, N'-carbonyldiimidazole (CDI) as catalyst for the first time. The Res conversion and the yield of RCL were achieved at 96.85% and 65.30%, respectively. In comparison with Res, RCL has lower acid value (1.80mg/g) and peroxide value (3.25meq/kg) and higher thermal stability (improved by 115.3 ℃). RCL was identified as a novel triester compound with a physical appearance as a light-yellow viscous oil. The 9c,11t-CLA was activated by CDI first, reacted with Res to form 4'-Res-ester preferentially, followed by 5,4'-Res-ester and 3,5,4'-Res-ester. The transition-state quaternary ring structures of monoesters were the key structures determining the formation of RCL. This study provided an efficient and eco-friendly approach for the synthesis of RCL, promoting the development of the synthesis of Res long-chain fatty acid ester.

An overview: the effect of fermentation and roasting methods on cocoa quality

Cocoa is Indonesia’s most important commodity and one that can contribute to economic development but has a problem, which is the low quality of cocoa produced. Differences in cocoa type, roasting and fermentation affect the quality content of cocoa such as antioxidants, free fatty acid and the fat profile of cocoa. Of the different methods of cocoa bean processing that affect the changes in antioxidant compounds are fermentation and roasting. Fermentation is best with 6 days in producing the aroma flavor of cocoa precursors and bulk cocoa type with an optimal time of 5-7 and fine cocoa type with an optimal time of 3-4 days. Superheated steam method slows down the rate of decline in antioxidant content, this condition is different from the conventional roasting method commonly used because it removes a lot of cocoa antioxidant content and accelerates the decline in antioxidant activity. Non-fermentation treatment results in low free fatty acid values while fermentation treatment can increase free fatty acid content but can be controlled by the addition of alkalization. on the fat profile geographical location such as differences in country of origin affects the content of fatty acid composition but fermentation and roasting processes has no significant effect on the fatty acid composition of cocoa.

Comparative Study of the Solvent Extraction and Characterization of Oil from the Seeds of Avocado, Bush Pear and Cashew

Due to their many purposes and functions for mankind, oils from fruits and seeds are given a lot of importance today. As a result, there is a higher demand for cashew, avocado, and bush pear oils. The Soxhlet extractor and petroleum ether as the extracting solvent are used in this work to extract and characterize the oils from the seeds of Cashew, Avocado, and Bush pear. Physical and chemical studies of the extracted oil were performed alongside with the identification of any trace metals. The findings assessed the yield, color, relative density, refractive index, acid value, peroxide value, iodine value, and saponification value free fatty acid for Bush pear, Avocado pear, and Cashew seeds. The yield (%) of the oil produced from the various seeds of cashew, avocado, and bush pear oils is of specific significance. This finding reveals highest oil yield of 38.2% in Avocado pear oil, compared to 34.4% and 27.4% oil yield in Bush pear seed, and Cashew seed, respectively. In addition to being edible, Bush pear and Cashew oil's low acid value of 6.4 mg KOH/g and 7.7 mg KOH/g, respectively compared to Avocado oil's low acid value of 14.6 mg KOH/g avocado suggests that Bush pear and Cashew oils finds good applications in the paint industry. The study also showed that potassium had the highest concentration of any metal, with 45.8 mg/100g in avocado oil, compared 24.9 mg/100g and 1.68 mg/100g for Cashew seed oil and Bush pear, respectively. Zinc had the lowest concentration, with a value of 0.38 mg/100g observed in Cashew compared with 1.32 mg/100g and 2.06 mg/100g for Bush pear and Avocado, respectively. Hence, this reveals that Oils extracted from Cashew finds good applications in the production of hydraulic oil with exceptional lubrication properties. The FTIR study shows that functional groups including alkanes, alkenes, carbonyls, etc. are present in the seed oils of Bush pear, Avocado pear, and Cashew seeds.