Low Thermal Conductivity Research Articles

Preparation and properties of a rigid hemp shiv insulation particle board using citric acid-glycerol mixture as an eco-friendly binder

Particle boards are commonly manufactured from wood-based material bound with a thermosetting adhesive based on the reaction of formaldehyde with phenol, urea, melamine, or co-condensates. The use of formaldehyde is a cause for concern due to its harmful emissions. This study investigates the use of an alternative binder combined with particles derived from a short-cycle crop as an alternative to timber derived particles. A low density particle board was developed using hemp shiv as an aggregate with a binder made with crude glycerol, derived from the waste stream of the bio-diesel industry, esterified with citric acid under heat activation. This board was characterized and found to have good mechanical properties, low thermal conductivity, and good moisture buffering. Dimensional stability was compromised by swelling when exposed to water, but it will be possible to address this shortcoming using hydrophobic additives. The acoustic properties of the board were also found to be excellent, showing potential for use as a thermally insulating acoustic separator for internal walls.

Experimental Research on Basalt Fabric-Based Composites for Protection Against Contact Heat

ABSTRACT The unique properties of basalt fibers, i.e. low thermal conductivity, thermal resistance up to 800°C, biodegradability, resistance to acids and alkalis, corrosion, ultraviolet radiation, and non-flammability, make them increasingly used in personal protective equipment. The design and production of basalt fabric-based composites were performed, and composite layers were directly modified by depositing thin coatings using the magnetron sputtering method. The designing and testing were performed in five stages. For direct basalt fabric modification and basalt fabric-based composites, resistance to contact heat was tested for contact temperatures of 100°C and 250°C. Moreover, the uncertainty budgets of the threshold time measurement results were determined and analyzed for all composites. New basalt fabric-based composites were designed to protect users from contact heat in hot work environments. As a result of the research, it was found that applying composite coatings: aluminum and zirconium dioxide or aluminum and zirconium dioxide and titanium dioxide to both composite layers proved to be effective in obtaining composites that guarantee perfect resistance to contact heat up to 250°C.

Analyzing switching variability of SiNx-based RRAM in terms of Joule heating dissipation

In this paper, the switching variability of SiNx-based RRAM with reactive metal electrodes in terms of Joule heating dissipation was analyzed. The electrode with high (low) thermal conductivity showed low LRS (HRS) variability in SiNx-based RRAM. By analyzing the I–V characteristics and the current conduction mechanism, we proposed that the thermal conductivity of reactive electrodes significantly affected the number of ions involved in the switching process and the vacancies distribution in the switching layer, resulting in the difference in the switching performance. This study suggested that attention should be paid to the influence of electrode thermal conductivity on variability, providing ideas for designing RRAM with low switching variability.

Fins-nanoparticle combination for phase change material enhancement in a triplex tube heat exchanger: A numerical approach to thermal sustainability

Many phase change materials exhibit low thermal conductivity, leading to incomplete melting and solidification processes. To address this issue, researchers have numerically explored the integration of alumina nanoparticles (Al2O3) with paraffin (RT82), a phase change material with a solidification temperature of 65 °C, in a triplex-tube heat exchanger. The phase change material model with internal longitudinal fins employed the both-sides freezing technique and was conducted using Ansys Fluent software, employing the enthalpy-porosity method within a finite-volume framework to model the phase change material behavior during both melting and solidification phases. This methodology aims to significantly improve the thermal performance of thermal energy storage systems by enhancing heat transfer efficiency within the phase change material (PCM), thereby ensuring more effective utilization of stored thermal energy. The numerical findings show that the pure PCM completely solidified in 780 min. By dispersing 1 %, 4 %, 7 %, and 10 % of Al2O3 in the PCM, thermal conductivity improved by 3 %, 12.5 %, 22.5 %, and 32.5 %, respectively. Additionally, the inclusion of nano-PCM reduced the solidification time. This research also compares the overall energy release in two different situations: PCM with and without nanoparticles. The computer-generated simulation results closely correlated with the practical experimentation results.

Multifunctional Wood Composite Aerogel with Integrated Radiant Cooling and Fog–Water Harvesting for All‐Day Building Energy Conservation

AbstractPassive radiative cooling, as a cooling technique with no energy input, can continuously radiate heat into the supercooled universe. However, the continuous cooling effect tends to cause the problem of nighttime overcooling. Moreover, non‐renewable radiative cooling materials and energy‐intensive processing methods lead to increased carbon emissions and resource consumption. Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop a renewable and environmentally friendly self‐adaption radiative cooling thermal management material. In this paper, a high‐performance self‐adaption thermal management wood composite aerogel material is designed and prepared by in situ growth of multi‐scale silicon dioxide on wood. The constructed passive radiative cooling material has a sub‐ambient cooling effect of up to 13.5 °C and 20.2 °C during daytime in winter and summer, respectively. Meanwhile, it has a certain thermal insulation performance (2.0 °C above ambient) due to low thermal conductivity (0.063370 ± 0.000329 W m−1 k−1) at night in winter. In addition, the material is also suitable for fog–water harvesting (fog–water harvesting rate of 59.27 ± 0.76 mg min−1) due to its hydrophobicity. This work can significantly promote the practical application of passive radiative cooling materials.

Cooling and Lubricating Strategies for INCONEL® Alloys Machining: A Comprehensive Review on Recent Advances

Abstract INCONEL® alloys are Ni-based superalloys with superior mechanical properties for extremely high temperature (T) applications. These alloys present significant challenges: they are difficult-to-cut materials due to the low thermal conductivity (k), severe work hardening and elevated surface hardness. They are widely used in applications that require good dimensional stability; however, built-up edge (BUE) followed by premature Tool Wear (TW) are the most common problems when applying conventional machining (CM) and hybrid machining processes, i.e. Additive Manufacturing (AM) followed by milling, resulting in a meagre final product finishing. Regarding cooling/lubricating environments, a miscellanea of methods can effectively be applied to INCONEL® alloys, depending on their advantages and disadvantages. It is imperative to refine the machining parameters to enhance the performance outcomes of the process, particularly concerning the quality and cost-effectiveness of the product. This current review intends to offer a systematic summary and analysis of the progress taken within the field of INCONEL® CM and the various cooling/lubricating methods over the past decade, filling a gap found in the literature in this field of knowledge. A Systematic Literature Review (SLR) approach was employed in this study, aiming to identify pertinent papers within the cooling and lubricating strategies for INCONEL® alloys machining. The most recent solutions found in the industry and the prospects from researchers will be presented, providing significant insights for academic researchers and industry professionals. It was found that selecting cooling methods for INCONEL® machining requires careful consideration of various factors. Each lubrication environment utilized in traditional INCONEL® machining methods offer unique advantages and challenges regarding the different outcomes: TW, Tool-Life (TL) and/or surface quality assessment; nevertheless, cryogenic cooling by CO2(l) and N2(l) highlights as the better cooling environment to improve the machined surface quality.

Enhanced Thermoelectric Performance of SnTe via Introducing Resonant Levels

SnTe has emerged as a non-toxic and environmentally friendly alternative to the high-performance thermoelectric material PbTe, attracting significant interest in sustainable energy applications. In our previous work, we successfully synthesized high-quality SnTe with reduced thermal conductivity under high-pressure conditions. Building on this, in this work, we introduced indium (In) doping to further decrease thermal conductivity under high pressure. By incorporating resonance doping into the SnTe matrix, we aimed to enhance the electrical transport properties while maintaining low thermal conductivity. This approach enhances the Seebeck coefficient to an impressive 153 μVK−1 at 735 K, marking a notable enhancement compared to undoped SnTe. Furthermore, we noted a substantial decrease in total thermal conductivity, dropping from 6.91 to 3.88 Wm−1K−1 at 325 K, primarily due to the reduction in electrical conductivity. The synergistic impact of decreased thermal conductivity and heightened Seebeck coefficient resulted in a notable improvement in the thermoelectric figure of merit (ZT) and average ZT, achieving approximately 0.5 and 0.22 in the doped samples, respectively. These advancements establish Sn1−xInxTe as a promising candidate to replace PbTe in thermoelectric applications, providing a safer and more environmentally sustainable option.

Enhanced Weighted Mobility Induced High Thermoelectric Performance in Argyrodite Ag8SnSe6.

The argyrodite family has emerged as a promising thermoelectric candidate due to its highly diffusive Ag ions and inherent low thermal conductivity. To address issues that commonly arise with hot pressing (HP) sintering, this study proposes to use the zone melting (ZM) method to synthesize high-density polycrystalline bulk Ag8SnSe6 samples. The thermoelectric properties of samples synthesized by the ZM and HP methods were thoroughly evaluated over a temperature range of 300 to 700 K. Due to the weaker scattering of electrons, the ZM-synthesized samples exhibited an ∼60% increase in weighted mobility, compared to those produced by the HP method. Despite the slight increase in thermal conductivity, the specimen synthesized by the ZM method achieves a higher peak zT value of 1.05 at 700 K. The average zT value also improves to 0.71 across the temperature range of 300 to 700 K. This work demonstrates the effectiveness of the ZM method in enhancing the thermoelectric performance of Ag8SnSe6, with great potential applicability to other argyrodite compounds.

Construction of “organic–inorganic” hierarchical structure of carbon fibers and the effect on the properties of epoxy composites

AbstractThe demand for epoxy (EP) in semiconductor, aerospace, and other applications is currently on the rise. However, pure epoxy is difficult to meet these requirements, such as low thermal conductivity and poor toughness. Therefore, in this paper, sulfonamides (SAs) and core‐shell silica (SLC‐SiO2) were grafted onto the surface of short carbon fibers (SCF) with sizes of 0.1–6 mm by the chemical grafting method. As a result, the surface activity of SCF was improved and the interfacial properties of the EP composites were enhanced. The interfacial compatibility of SCF grafted with SAs and SLC‐SiO2 in EP is greatly improved, resulting in stronger mechanical interlocking and chemical bonding ability between EP and SCF. The results showed that when the content of SCF@SAs@SLC‐SiO2/EP composites reached 0.3 wt% of SCF@SAs@SLC‐SiO2, the impact and tensile strengths were increased from 12.15 kJ·m−2 and 43.4 MPa to 16.93 kJ·m−2 and 74.97 MPa compared with the pure epoxy, which were improved 39.3% and 72.7%. In addition, the thermal conductivity of SCF@SAs@SLC‐SiO2/EP composites was also improved by 12.5% from 0.205 W·(m·K)−1 to 0.2306 W·(m·K)−1 compared with the pure EP. This is due to improved chemical interactions and mechanical interlocking at the fiber‐epoxy interface. This study provides a new method for the preparation of high‐performance SCF/EP composites.Highlights The amino group of sulfonamides was grafted with short carbon fiber to increase the surface active group of short carbon fiber. Sulfonamides react with carboxyl groups on the surface of core‐shell silica to form an “organic–inorganic” structure. Improve the surface roughness of short carbon fiber, and make it evenly dispersed in epoxy resin, so as to improve the performance of epoxy composite materials.

Synergistic effect of lone-pair electron and atomic distortion in introducing anomalous phonon transport in layered PbXSeF (X= Cu, Ag) compounds with low lattice thermal conductivity

Using first-principles calculations, self-consistent phonon theory and Boltzmann transport theory, the crystal structure, phonon and electronic transport, and thermoelectric (TE) properties of PbXSeF (X = Cu, Ag) compounds are comprehensive explored in the current work. The heterogeneous bonding characteristics along the in-plane and out-of-plane directions lead to low lattice thermal conductivities in PbXSeF (X = Cu, Ag) compounds. The low lattice thermal conductivity is primarily attributed to strong anharmonicity caused by the lone-pair electrons of Pb. Notably, the PbCuSeF compound, despite the lighter mass in comparison with PbAgSeF, exhibits relatively lower lattice thermal conductivity. Such finding can be attributed to the distortion introduced by Cu atom, which leads to strong quartic anharmonicity, and thereby suppressing the heat-carrying phonons through the rattling-like behavior of Cu atom. The lone-pair electrons of Pb2+ and the heterogeneous bonding characteristics in PbXSeF (X = Cu, Ag) compounds contribute the multi-valley band degeneracy, resulting the decoupling of Seebeck coefficient and electrical conductivity with carrier concentration while generating in a high power factor. Our current work not only illustrates the fundamental insights into the low lattice thermal conductivity and related anomaly of layered PbXSeF (X = Cu, Ag) compounds based on the four-phonon scattering and multiple carrier scattering rates, but also highlights the anisotropic feature of electronic and thermal transport properties.

Computational prediction of Thermo-Elastic and charge carriers transport properties of Ba2MnReO6, Ba2NiReO6, and Sr2MnReO6 double Perovskite compounds

The present work involves a computational investigation of the elastic, thermal, and thermoelectric characteristics of Ba2MnReO6, Ba2NiReO6, and Sr2MnReO6 from the Double Perovskite family. The study verified the mechanical stability of the three compounds and investigated Young’s modulus, Poisson, bulk, and shear modulusin various stress orientations. We were also able to compute longitudinal, transverse, and average sound velocities (Vl, Vt, and Vm, in m/s), and the findings revealed that Sr2MnReO6 had a greater longitudinal velocity than the other two compounds. Thermodynamic characteristics revealed that Ba2MnReO6, Ba2NiReO6, and Sr2MnReO6exhibit low lattice thermal conductivity (Kl) at medium temperatures, strong heat absorption, and a moderate coefficient of thermal expansion.The analysis of the electron and hole charge carriers’ transport characteristics revealed that, when doped with an electron concentration close to 1020 cm−3, the two materials, Ba2MnReO6 and Sr2MnReO6, may have an excellent figure of merit surpassing 0.6 at temperatures over 600 K.

Numerical simulation for subsidence control in CO2 storage and methane hydrate extraction

Gas hydrates are increasingly viewed as a promising alternative to traditional fossil fuels. However, their extraction process poses risks to structural integrity, potentially causing significant subsidence. In this study, we developed a Thermo-Hydro-Mechanical-Chemical (THMC) model to analyze the impact of gas hydrate extraction on seabed subsidence. Our investigation focused on the influence of bottom hole flowing pressure, initial hydrate concentration, gas saturation, permeability, porosity, and rock thermal conductivity on subsidence during gas hydrate extraction via depressurization.The results show that seabed subsidence is affected by various factors such as bottom hole flowing pressure, initial hydrate concentration, gas saturation, permeability, porosity, and rock thermal conductivity. It was noted that significant subsidence is associated with low initial hydrate concentration, high permeability, porosity, low gas saturation, low rock thermal conductivity, and a notable pressure drop of 79.31%.To address this issue, we propose a seabed subsidence mitigation strategy involving CO2 injection. This approach not only safeguards offshore infrastructure and coastal communities but also helps reduce CO2 emissions, aligning with global climate change mitigation efforts. In our model, CO2 injection occurs in the subsurface reservoir at the interface between the free water zone and hydrate-bearing formations. The CO2 hydrates formation process releases heat, which dissociates methane hydrates, allowing the methane to be replaced by CO2 molecules and move towards the production well.Our analysis reveals that increasing injection temperature and rate significantly reduces subsidence. Additionally, the range of investigated injection pressures, which included pressures equal to and more than double the initial reservoir pressure, showed inconsequential impacts on seabed subsidence.The effectiveness of subsidence reduction is significantly enhanced by injecting a CO2/N2 mixture compared to pure CO2 injection. The most substantial reduction in subsidence occurred when a mixture of CO2 and N2 in a 50/50 vol/vol ratio was injected at a high rate.These findings offer crucial insights for optimizing the efficiency and control of gas hydrate extraction methods. They emphasize the importance of employing balanced injection strategies to minimize environmental risks and ensure sustainable energy extraction.

Preparation and Properties of Flexible Phenolic Silicone Hybrid Aerogels for Thermal Insulation

In order to prepare flexible thermal protection aerogel materials, using dimethyldimethoxysilane (DMDMS) and methyltrimethoxysilane (MTMS) as co-precursors, isocyanate-propyltrimethoxysilane (CFS-006) was added to the co-precursor as a coupling agent, and resorcinol and formaldehyde were added to the sol solution to prepare a phenolic silicone hybrid aerogel (FAS) by the sol–gel method. The prepared FAS aerogel had no phase separation problem, the density was only 0.118 g/cm3, the hydrophobic angle reached 155.3°, and it had certain flexibility. It could be compressed to 70% and still be restored to its original state. The FAS aerogel also had a low thermal conductivity of 0.0318 W/(m·K) and good high temperature insulation. The introduction of phenolic groups improved thermal stability; Tmax increased to 643.7 °C, and the residual carbon rate was 24.5%. This work has positive significance for the future combination of aerogels and textiles in the preparation of firefighting protective clothing.

Significantly Enhanced Interfacial Thermal Conductance across GaN/Diamond Interfaces Utilizing AlxGa1-xN as a Phonon Bridge.

Improving the thermal conductance at the GaN/diamond interface is crucial for boosting GaN-based device performance and reliability. In this study, first-principles calculations and molecular dynamics simulations were employed to explore the interfacial thermal conductance of GaN/diamond interfaces with AlxGa1-xN transition layers. The AlxGa1-xN alloy exhibits a lower thermal conductivity than GaN, primarily due to enhanced anharmonic phonon scattering. However, for the interfacial thermal conductance at the GaN/diamond interface, we discovered that introducing an AlxGa1-xN with a high Al concentration (x > 0.5) as a phonon bridge between GaN and diamond can significantly enhance the interfacial thermal conductance. In particular, it increases from 4.79 MW·m-2 K-1 to a maximum of 158 MW·m-2 K-1 at x = 0.75, surpassing the 152 MW·m-2 K-1 achieved by AlN. The AlxGa1-xN alloy has been confirmed computationally as a more efficient phonon bridge, which can provide a valuable theoretical reference for experimentally investigating the thermal management and thermal design of high-power electronic devices based on the GaN/diamond interface.

A cotton waste reinforced composite for automotive applications: development and thermal characterization

Fibre-reinforced composites are largely used in automobiles and building materials in various forms. Thermal insulation and acoustic characteristics are being mainly considered in building construction and automotive applications to meet overall comfort conditions as well as fulfil energy efficiency requirements. It is critical to look for new and sustainable approaches to increasing the thermal characteristics of the composites. Integration of various wastes is one of the most sustainable and efficient methods for increasing the thermal characteristics of composites. The present work is aimed to investigate the thermal insulation performance of cotton waste-reinforced composites using both epoxy and modified epoxy using the C-THERM thermal conductivity analyzer according to ASTM C518 standards. A computational model of randomly dispersed epoxy matrix interphase with cotton fibers is developed and validated with experimental results. It was observed that the thermal conductivity is higher when the combination of 40% flake cotton waste and 60% matrix material is used, both for epoxy and modified epoxy. The thermal conductivity for epoxy composites is 0.5715 W/mK, while for modified epoxy composites it is 0.4935 W/mK. The results indicate that modified epoxy composites exhibit better thermal insulation properties, as they have lower thermal conductivity values compared to epoxy composites. The modified epoxy composite is considered the best for thermal insulation, can be utilised in various automotive applications, such as partitioning panels, automotive panels, brake pads, and similar applications.

Influence of Different Filler Systems on the Thermal Conductivity and Mechanical Properties of Thermosets.

The changing demands in terms of the compactness and performance of electronic devices increase the role of thermal management within this application field. Because polymers and especially thermosets have a low thermal conductivity, filler systems have to be used to improve their performance and make thermosets suitable for applications. So far, several factors influencing thermal conductivity have been defined; however, the combined investigation of mechanical properties as another important value in terms of applications has not been realized. Therefore, this paper analyzes thermal conductivity based on the orientation of fillers and a contact path as well as mechanical properties in different material systems. In addition to the matrix material, the filler type and grade and the geometry and size were varied. It was shown that boron nitride provides the best values in terms of thermal conductivity after orientation along the flow path is realized. An aluminum silicate was defined as the best filler system in terms of mechanical properties. However, the boron nitride was found to reveal the greatest potential in terms of applications, since the mechanical properties are likely to be increased by the usage of finishing additives such as silane.

Thermal Conductivity Enhancement of Doped Magnesium Hydroxide for Medium-Temperature Heat Storage: A Molecular Dynamics Approach and Experimental Validation.

Magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2, is recognized as a promising material for medium-temperature heat storage, but its low thermal conductivity limits its full potential application. In this study, thermal enhancement of a developed magnesium hydroxide-potassium nitrate (Mg(OH)2-KNO3) material was carried out with aluminum oxide (Al2O3) nanomaterials. The theoretical results obtained through a molecular dynamics (MD) simulation approach showed an enhancement of about 12.9% in thermal conductivity with an optimal 15 wt% of Al2O3. There was also close agreement with the experimental results within an error of ≤10%, thus confirming the reliability of the theoretical approach and the potential of the developed Mg(OH)2-KNO3 as a medium heat storage material. Further investigation is, however, encouraged to establish the long-term recyclability of the material towards achieving a more efficient energy storage process.

Ultralow lattice thermal conductivity in K2AuBi and its thermoelectric properties

Thermoelectric materials are best known for their prowess to transform the environment’s waste heat into electricity. In an endeavor to explore new thermoelectric prospects, in the present study, we investigate K2AuBi using density functional theory-based first-principles simulations. From our simulations, we find an intrinsically low lattice thermal conductivity of 0.43 W m−1 K−1 at 300 K in K2AuBi. Based on our detailed analysis, we find the reasons for such a low value of lattice thermal conductivity as, low phonon group velocities, short phonon lifetimes, anharmonicity in the lattice vibrations, and significant mean square displacements of K and Au atoms. The large mean square displacements hint at weak bonding and anharmonicity in the lattice vibrations, favoring more phonons scattering. We also find that the vibrations of K-atoms can be related to rattlers, conducive to low lattice thermal conductivity. Our simulations predict a high value, ∼784 μV K−1, of Seebeck coefficient at 700 K on account of the large density of states in the vicinity of Fermi level. Combining our computed lattice thermal conductivity with electrical transport properties, we obtain a high figure of merit, ZT∼ 1.04, at 700 K in K2AuBi.

First‐Principles Study of the Effects of High‐Order Anharmonicity on the Thermal Transport Properties and Thermoelectric Effects in the Lattice Dynamics of 12 New Full–Heusler Compounds X2YTe (X = Na, K, Rb, Cs; Y = Zn, Cd, Hg)

AbstractIn this study, advanced first‐principles calculations combined with self‐consistent phonon theory and the Boltzmann transport equation are used to assess the thermoelectric properties of novel Full–Heusler materials X2YTe (X = Na, K, Rb, Cs; Y = Zn, Cd, Hg). These materials exhibit low formation energies, facilitating synthesis under standard conditions. This analysis showed that lattice anharmonicity increases with the atomic mass of X and decreases with the atomic mass of Y due to the rattling effect of Y atoms. Significant rattling effects are identified, prompting the inclusion of higher‐order anharmonic effects. By renormalizing the phonon spectrum and accounting for three‐phonon and four‐phonon scattering, the mechanisms behind the low lattice thermal conductivity in these compounds is uncovered. The combination of low lattice thermal conductivity and high power factors resulted in remarkable thermoelectric figure of merit values at optimal doping concentrations and temperatures. Notably, except for Na2ZnTe and Na2HgTe, all other materials surpassed the long‐standing figure of merit record of less than 3, with Rb2ZnTe achieving a figure of merit of 8.11 at 700 K with an n‐type doping concentration of 2 × 1019. The inclusion of spin‐orbit coupling led to less than a 10% reduction in the thermoelectric figure of merit, underscoring the superior thermoelectric performance of these materials.

Highly robust, processable and multi-functional PDMS/graphene composite aerogel constructed by “soft-hard” interface engineering strategy

Graphene aerogel (GA) has attracted wide attention for its potential applications in various fields. However, the graphene nanosheets in the GA framework often exhibit insufficient adhesion and interfacial contact due to weak interactions, resulting in fragile cell walls and poor structural stability. Here, inspired by the principle of “soft-hard” compounding, a class of GA with extraordinary structural stability and mechanical property was prepared based on the in-situ bonding interfacial engineering between different phases in Pickering emulsion. Through interfacial engineering, the fatal compounding drawback between fusing oily polymer soft chains and water-soluble hard graphene oxide (GO) nanosheets is resolved, which enables polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) chains to in-situ adhere onto GO nanosheets, eventually resulting in compelling structural-stable PDMS/GO aerogel (PGOA) backbone. Later, PDMS/GA (PGA) can be easily obtained by simple reduction of PGOA. The obtained PGA achieves excellent structural stability, 97.5 % elasticity, 1.7 MPa compressive capacity, and unprecedented isotropic characteristics. The assembled flexible sensor based on PGA has a high sensitivity of 17.08 kPa−1. Additionally, PGA has low thermal conductivity (0.0245–0.0301 W/(m ∙ K)) and good flame retardancy (∼1000 °C). Because of these excellent properties, PGA has a wide range of potential applications in areas such as flexible sensing, thermal protection, and fire detection.