Lower Starch Content Research Articles

Starch content differences between two sweet potato accessions are associated with specific changes in gene expression.

Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.) is one of the most important root crops in the world. Initial formation and development of storage roots (SRs) are key factors affecting its yields. In order to study the molecular mechanism and regulatory networks of the SRs development process, we have analyzed root transcriptomes between the high and low starch content sweet potato accessions at three different developmental stages. In this study, we assembled 46,840 unigenes using Illumina paired-end sequencing reads and identified differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between two accessions. The numbers of DEGs were increased with the development of SRs, indicating that the difference between two accessions is enlarging with the maturation. DEGs were mainly enriched in starch biosynthesis, plant hormones regulatory, and genetic information processing pathways. Then, expression patterns of DEGs that are most significant and starch biosynthesis related were validated using qRT-PCR. Our results provide valuable resources to future study on molecular mechanisms of SRs development and candidate genes for starch content improvement in sweet potato.

Effect of chitosan–Jicama starch coating on changes in qualities of fresh Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) fillets during ice storage

SummaryThe effect of chitosan (0.5%)/Jicama starch (0%–4%)‐based edible coating on the quality of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) fillets was evaluated over ice storage time. All samples were periodically analysed for pH value, thiobarbituric acid (TBA), total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB‐N), electrical conductivity (EC), total viable counts (TVC), total psychrotrophic counts (TPC), drip loss, colour, hardness and sensory characteristics. Results demonstrated that the quality of Nile tilapia fillets was preserved by the film containing chitosan and/or Jicama starch. Compared with chitosan coating alone (0.5% chitosan/0.25% glycerol) (P < 0.05), T3 (0.5% chitosan/1% Jicama starch/0.25% glycerol) had a better effect on the drip loss, TBA, TVC, TPC, hardness and sensory characteristics of the samples, thus indicating that low Jicama starch concentration (1%) enriched the coating ability of chitosan in extending the shelf life of Nile tilapia fillets.

Phosphorus and potassium effects on taproot C and N reserve pools and long-term persistence of alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.)

Improved P and K nutrition can enhance yield and persistence of alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) grown on low fertility soils, but it is unknown if the improved agronomic performance is associated with greater taproot N and C reserves. Our objective was to use cluster analysis to determine how alfalfa plant persistence is altered by P and K fertilization, and determine if changes in specific taproot C and/or N reserves were associated with alfalfa plant death. Taproots were dug and plants counted in May and December of each year and taproots analyzed for P, K, starch, sugar, amino-N, and soluble protein. K-means clustering was used to create six clusters that were subsequently compared using two-sample t-tests. Low K in herbage and taproots was associated with low yield and poor persistence of the Low and Very Low clusters and taproots of these plants generally had low starch, protein, and amino-N concentrations. Plants died primarily between May and December. Plant persistence of the low yielding, P-deficient Medium cluster was high and associated with high starch concentrations. Low amino-N concentrations in taproots may provide an early indication of potential plant death because these were evident in poor-persisting Low and Very Low clusters early in the study.

Sensory evaluation and glycaemic index of a food developed with flour from whole (pulp and peel) overripe banana (Musa cavendishii) discards

This study evaluated the use of flour from overripe whole bananas (OWBF), which are generally discarded, as an ingredient of muffins. Products with OWBF in 400 and 500 g/kg of total flour were highly acceptable, obtaining an average rating of 5.6 points for odour, 5.7 points for colour, 5.2 points for taste, and 5.6 points for mouth texture, in a 7 points hedonic evaluation (1: dislike so much, to 7: like so much) done by non-trained panelists. Though OWBF has a high levels of dietary fibre (181.9 g/kg) and resistant starch (35 g/kg), a low total starch content (57 g/kg) and high simple sugars content were observed (714.2 g/kg of carbohydrates were glucose plus fructose). The evaluation of the glycaemic response to the consumption of a muffin made with OWBF showed no differences with white bread (reference food), with a glycaemic index of 84 ± 38 for the muffin. The glycaemic load (GL) of 50 g portion of muffin with OWBF was 15, which classified the product as intermediate GL. Then, the use of OWBF in muffins is possible and acceptable, and the consumption of OWFB does not affect adversely the glycaemic response in overweight people.

Agroecological Efficiency of Organic and Mineral Fertilizers under Frozen Soil Conditions

Investigations were carried out on permafrost taiga soil in Central Yakutia in a field factorial experiment with a wide range of rates and combinations of cattle manure and mineral fertilizers. The advantage of an organo-mineral fertilizer system in N60P60K60 rates was shown against a background of 40 t of manure per hectare, which provides, under watering conditions, potato tuber yields of 18 t per hectare with starch content of 13.9%, which is 47.8% higher than in the control without fertilizer use. The yield of potatoes under the organic system with annual manure rate of 40 t per hectare was at the same level with the mineral system, but tubers contained more starch, 12.8%. It has also been established that organo-mineral and organic systems have a positive effect on the agrochemical properties of the soil, optimize its humus state and phosphate and potassium regimes. For the mineral fertilizer systems in rates of N60P60K60, the yield increment was significant, but it did not exceed 17.8% with a lower starch content in tubers, 11.5%, and a negative balance of humus, phosphorus, and potassium in the soil.

Physicochemical characteristics and proximate composition of wheat cultivars from the Canary Islands

Proximate composition was determined in 19 wheat cultivars from the Canary Islands in order to establish differences between them and contribute to their characterization. All parameters analysed showed significant differences between cultivars; and also many parameters were affected by the species and subspecies of wheat. Triticum aestivum had higher mean moisture, protein, and fibre and lower mean starch, sucrose, and amylose concentrations than Triticum turgidum. Low starch content and high fibre content could be due to the transformation of starch into resistant starch during desiccation process. An important contribution of complex carbohydrates, including fibre as well as protein and phenolic compounds, was observed for the consumption of wheat.

Non-structural carbohydrates characteristics of different forest layers in monsoon broad-leaved evergreen forest in Pu'er, Yunnan Province, China

Based on cluster analysis of species vertical stratification, the variations in concentration, allocation and seasonal dynamics of non-structural carbohydrates were investigated in a monsoon broad-leaved evergreen forest in Pu'er, Yunnan Province. The results showed that the concentrations of soluble sugar (3.9%) and nonstructural carbohydrates (NSC, 13.3%) were the highest in the sub-canopy. In contrast, the sugar/starch (0.76) of understory was the lowest. There was no significant difference in starch content among three forest layers. For all forest stories, the soluble sugar was mainly allocated to leaves and the roots had more starch and NSC. The soluble sugar contents in leaves and trunks of sub-canopy species were higher than canopy and understory species. There were no significant differences in soluble sugar content of twigs and roots among three different forest layers. The starch content of leaves increased with decreasing height of forest layers. In contrast, the lowest starch content (10.7%) of roots was in understory. There was no significant difference in starch content of twigs and trunks among three different forest layers. The NSC content of leaves was lower in canopy (10.7%) than that in sub-canopy (12.3%) and understory (12.0%). The lowest NSC content of roots was in understory (14.2%). The lowest sugar/starch of leaves, twigs, and trunks presented in understory, while the lowest sugar/starch of roots presented in canopy (0.79). There were dramatic seasonal variations in concentrations and components of NSC. The concentration of soluble sugar and the sugar/starch were higher in the rainy season than that in the dry season. However, the concentration of starch and NSC were higher in the dry season than in the rainy season. The variations in concentration of NSC and its components among forest layers indicated that species with different heights varied in their utilization strategies of carbon, which partly explained species coexistence.

The effect of alfalfa (Medicago sativa) silage chop length and inclusion rate within a total mixed ration on the ability of lactating dairy cows to cope with a short-term feed withholding and refeeding challenge

The objectives of the study were (1) to test whether 6 h of feed deprivation followed by refeeding induces an acidosis challenge in dairy cattle and (2) to quantify the acidosis challenge mitigation potential of increased alfalfa silage concentration in the diet. Alfalfa silage constituted either 25 or 75% of forage dry matter (DM) replacing corn silage [low (LA) or high alfalfa (HA)] and was chopped to either 14 or 19 mm theoretical length [short (S) or long (L)]. Dietary treatments LAS, LAL, HAS, or HAL were offered to 4 rumen-cannulated Holstein dairy cattle (161 d in milk; 5th or 6th parity) in a 4 × 4 Latin square design study with 21-d periods. Starch concentration was 69 g/kg of DM higher for LA diets than HA diets. Feed was withheld for 6 h followed by ad libitum refeeding on d 18 of each period. Measurements of DM intake, milk yield and composition, rumen pH, and eating and rumination behavior were taken on 1 baseline day, the challenge day, and 2 further recovery days. After refeeding, rumen pH was reduced in cows fed LA diets but not HA diets. Feeding LAL resulted in the greatest subclinical acidosis risk (pH <5.8 for 355 min on the first recovery day). Animals fed LA produced 4.4 L less milk on the challenge day in comparison to baseline. It was concluded that short-term feed deprivation detrimentally affected rumen health and milk yield in dairy cattle normally fed ad libitum, but had no effect on DM intake or milk composition. Feeding alfalfa silage in place of corn silage mitigated acidosis risk due to interrupted feed supply, likely due to a combination of lower starch concentration in HA diets, greater effective fiber concentration, and higher buffering capacity of alfalfa relative to corn silage.

Application of ZFN for Site Directed Mutagenesis of Rice SSIVa Gene

Many successful studies on genome editing in plants have been reported and one of the popular genome editing technology used in plants is Zinc Finger Nucleases (ZFN), which are chimeric proteins composed of synthetic zinc finger-based DNA binding domain and a DNA cleavage domain. The objective of this research was to utilize ZFNs to induce a double-stranded break in SSIVa, a soluble starch synthase involved in starch biosynthesis pathway, leading to the regulation of the SSIVa expression. The isoform SSIVa is not yet well studied, thus, by modifying the endogenous loci in SSIVa, we can explore on the specific roles of this gene in starch biosynthesis and other possible functions it might play. In this study, we used ZFN-mediated targeted gene disruption in the coding sequence of the SSIVa rice gene in an effort to elucidate the functional role of the gene. Generation of transgenic plants carrying premature stop codons and substitution events, revealed no SSIVa mRNA expression, low starch contents and dwarf phenotypes. Remarkably, based on our analysis SSIVa gene disruption had no effect on other starch synthesis related genes as their expression remained at wild type levels. Therefore, the engineered ZFNs can efficiently cleave and stimulate mutations at SSIVa locus in rice to

Viabilidade econômica do cultivo de milho doce submetido à inoculação com Azospirillum brasilense e soluções de tiamina

Sweet maize is different from conventional maize mainly because of its higher sugar content and lower starch content and, although nutritious, its production is little explored. In other cultures, an increase in the quality of production has been obtained using biological nitrogen fixation and stimuli to the plant defense system. However, verifying the financial return of the cultural treatments given to the crops, which directly interferes in the interest on the management of the cultures, is essential. Thus, this study aimed to estimate and evaluate the economic indicators of sweet maize cultivation under joint or isolated action of inoculation with A. brasilense and treatment with thiamine solutions on seed (0, 15, 30, 45 mg kg-1). To determine the production cost of a sweet corn production cycle, the structure of total operating cost was used, and post-harvest activities were disregarded. The highest values of sweet corn production were related to the manual harvesting and the acquisition of seeds, which together corresponded to R$ 980.00 or 52% of the total operating cost. The inoculation of A. brasilense and the use of thiamine, alone or in combination, increased productivity, not significantly burdening the total operating cost and, consequently, raising profitability-related indices from the sale of the product. For the conditions proposed in this study, the production of sweet maize for in natura consumption, as green maize, provides greater economic gains to the rural producer when compared with corn destined to the industry.

Elucidating potential utilization of Portuguese common bean varieties in rice based processed foods.

The present study was aimed at studying the physico-chemical and functional properties of 31 Portuguese common bean varieties. In addition, the whole bean flours (WBF) and starch isolates (SI) of three representative bean varieties and their rice: bean blends (70:30; 50:50) were assessed for amylose content, thermal and pasting properties in view of supplementation in rice based processed foods. Bean varieties showed significant differences in protein content (20.78-27.10%), fat content (1.16-2.18%), hydration capacity (95.90-149.30%), unhydrated seeds (4.00-40.00%), γ tocopherol (3.20-98.05mg/100g fat), δ tocopherol (0.06-4.72mg/100g fat) and pasting behavior. Amylose content of WBF (11.4-20.2%) was significantly lower than rice flour (23.51%) whereas SI of beans (40.00-47.26%) had significantly higher amylose content than SI of rice (28.13%). DSC results showed that WBF (11.4-20.2°C) had significantly broader and lower gelatinization temperature range (∆Tr) than corresponding SI (20.9-23.1°C). WBF had significantly lower pasting viscosity due to low starch content and compositional matrix effect as compared to SI. Setback viscosities of WBF and rice: bean blends was lower than rice flour. Low setback viscosities of rice:bean blends may be used to prevent syneresis and stabilizing the quality of frozen foods in rice based processed foods.

Investigation of influence of container geometry and starch concentration on thermal treated in-package food models by means of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)

The effects of jar geometry and % starch on heat transfer and fluid flow in food models were studied. Five jars (high cylinder, short cylinder, square, flared and hexagonal) and six (0%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5% and 6%) starch concentrations were investigated. Mathematical models were validated against experimental data and used to compare heat transfer and fluid flow. Overall heat transfer coefficient (OHTC) resulted influenced by jar geometry and, at low starch concentration, flared one showed the highest values while at 5 and 6% the high cylinder resulted the most favourable. Regarding natural convection, square gave the highest mean velocity probably due to the higher external surface while flared gave the lowest. CFD models allowed identifying the location of slowest heating/cooling zone (SHZ/SCZ) and pasteurizing values at geometric centre resulted higher than those at the SHZ (+15%), unacceptable as an overestimation could cause serious safety problems. In addition, the highest overestimation was observed for samples with 3%, 4% and 5% of starch which gave high viscosity products that could be easily confused with purely conductive ones and could bring to consider geometric centre as the SHZ.

Proximate, Crude Fiber and Starch Content of Maize Hybrids Developed in Indonesia in Natural Climatic Condition

Corn is one of strategic commodities becoming the main priorities to be developed in Indonesia. Aside from being a strategic foodstuffs, corn contains starch which is used for an excipient in pharmaceutical raw materials of "filler" or filler material for tablets. However, until now local starch production cannot meet the needs of the pharmaceutical industry in Indonesia, and still relies on imported starch. The purpose of this research was to develop maize hybrids from Universitas Padjadjaran which has high of starch and meet the quality for an excipient of pharmaceutical preparations. This research was conducted to determine a formation of a single cross hybrid based on the diallel crosses. Evaluation of fused power was determined by proximate analysis and starch analysis. The selection of hybrid high yield power was done in monocropping and agroforestry systems. The results retrieved 28 types of hybrid corn that comes from 7 different types of strains of mutant reproduction results. The lowest moisture content was the corn M7DR 7.4.1 (9.45%), whereas the highest moisture content of corn was DR. 8 (16.03%). Low starch content was obtained from maize hybrid code 4.8.8 while the highest was obtained from maize hybrid code 18.5.1 ranging from 30-40%. Therefore, corn hybrid 18.5.1 has a potential to be developed as an excipient of various raw materials in the field of pharmacy. Keywords: corn, a hybrid, starch, excipient pharmacy

A new potato variety grown in China suitable for raw eating

Hongmei is a new potato variety developed in recent year, which is suitable for raw eating as a kind of fruit. In this study, sensory evaluations, nutritional components, morphology characteristics of starch granules, phenolic compounds, sugars, glycoalkaloids, and amino acid composition of potato Hongmei were investigated. The results show that Hongmei be suitable for raw eating mainly based on three reasons: (1) possess a juicy characteristic and lower earthy smell, with a distinctive fruity flavor of fresh cucumber; (2) the average particle size of starch from Hongmei is 18.31 ± 7.71 μm, which is smaller than the commercial potato starch significant (p < 0.01); (3) with a content of 653.64 ± 83.25 mg/100 g of fructose, which is similar to the sweet potato be suitable for raw eating. The results also show that Hongmei had high concentrations of crude protein, total ascorbic acid, but lower starch content. The total glycoalkaloids content in the flesh is only 5.52 mg/kg, which implied that it is safe for raw eating. However, due to the total glycoalkaloids in the Hongmei peel is 358.88 mg/kg, which is higher than the safe standard of 200 mg/kg, it is recommended to peel when eating raw.

Soft wheat quality characteristics required for making baking powder biscuits

Fifteen soft wheat varieties were evaluated for their grain, milling, flour and dough mixing characteristics, as well as their solvent retention capacities (SRCs), pasting properties and suitability for making baking powder biscuits, to identify wheat quality characteristics required for making biscuits. Grain and flour protein contents and sodium dodecyl sulfate sedimentation (SDSS) volume showed positive relationships with biscuit height and shape factor (SF). Kernel hardness, damaged starch content and water SRC exhibited negative correlations with biscuit specific volume (SV), while peak viscosity and grain protein content were positively associated with biscuit SV. Stepwise multiple regression analysis indicated that biscuit height and SV can be predicted from flour protein content (R2 = 0.65) and damaged starch content (R2 = 0.69), respectively; while SDSS volume and flour yield together predict biscuit SF (R2 = 0.83). Cluster analysis based on biscuit height and SF indicated that seven soft wheat varieties with flour protein contents greater than 7.9% and SDSS volumes lower than 32.0 mL produce good-quality biscuits with high height, intermediate SF, great SV and soft crumb. The results of this study suggest that soft wheat flours with intermediate-to-high protein contents (7.9–9.7%), intermediate SDSS volumes (20.0–32.0 mL) and low damaged starch contents (1.9–3.4%) are suitable for making desirable-quality biscuits.

Nonstructural carbohydrates in leaves subtending cotton bolls, fibers and embryos in response to nitrogen stress

ABSTRACTA field study was conducted in 2013 and 2014 where cotton was exposed to three N regimes: (1) the control without N application (low N); (2) 260 kg N ha−1 (medium N); (3) 520 kg N ha−1 (high N). Boll size, lint mass per boll, seed mass per boll, fiber length and strength were significantly decreased under N deprivation in the two years. The increased carbohydrate levels of LSCB (leaf subtending the cotton boll) led to decreased carbohydrate levels of fibers in the low N relative to the other N treatments. The low N embryos exhibited lower starch concentrations at 17 and 31 DPA (days post anthesis), and TNC (total nonstructural carbohydrate) concentrations at 17, 31, 45 and 52 DPA compared to medium N embryos. Starch levels in LSCB had negative associations with those in fibers at 17, 31 and 45 DPA, but positive associations with those in embryos at 24 and 45 DPA. Fibers expressed negative associations with embryos in glucose level at 24 and 38 DPA, and in TNC levels at 17 and 45 DPA. The study suggests that carbon assimilate levels in fibers and embryos could explain the difference in boll yield components and fiber quality.

Improvement effect of nitrogen fertilizer and plant density on wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) seed deterioration and yield

In order to study the effect of seed deterioration, plant density and nitrogen fertilizer application on yield, yield components and somequalitative traits of wheat, a field experiment was conducted in Golestan province of Iran, as split factorial in the randomized completeblock design, with four replications in two growing seasons, 2014-2015 and 2015-2016. The experimental treatments included seedquality at 4 levels (control, 15, 30, and 45 hours of accelerated deterioration), plant density at two levels (350 and 420 plants/m) and nitrogen consumption at 3 levels (recommended rate, 15 and 30 percentages higher than the recommended rate, i.e., 125, 143.75, and162.5 kg N fertilizer ha, respectively). All quantitative traits (plant height, spike length, number of seeds per spike, number of spikeletsper spike, weight of 1000 seed, grain yield, straw yield, biological yield and harvest index) and quality traits (yield and protein content,nitrogen content, yield and starch content) were significantly different in different years. Application of recommended rate of nitrogenfertilizer in the first and the second year resulted in the highest average of number of seeds per spike and spike length. The highestgrain yield was achieved in the recommended and 30% higher than the recommended application rate of nitrogen fertilizer (4061.9 and4166.3 kg/ha, respectively) in the second year. Seed deterioration caused a significant reduction in yield and the yield components, sothe highest level of seed deteriorations in the first and the second years decreased 34.11 and 22.63% of the grain yield compared tothe control treatment. The highest protein content was achieved in the second year with the application of nitrogen 30% higher than therecommended rate (with a mean of 623.6 kg/ha), which increased by about 23% compared to the overall average. Seed deteriorationreduced the starch content, so that the highest mean was in non-deterioration in the second year (68.13%), which increased by 10%compared with that of the overall average. The lowest starch content was achieved at the highest level of deterioration (45 hours) in thefirst year (55.63%). In general, the results indicated that seed deterioration had negative effects on quantitative and some qualitativetraits, but the application of more nitrogen fertilizer and higher plant density reduced the negative effects of deterioration and improvedgrain yield and quality.

Novel ssIIa Alleles Produce Specific Seed Amylose Levels in Hexaploid Wheat

Novel starch synthase II (ssIIa) alleles were created in a soft wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) via ethyl methanesulfonate mutagenesis and combined by crossing to create four unique ssIIa triple mutant haplotypes. A range of starch amylose content was obtained from the ssIIa triple mutant lines (35.6–46.8%), with moderate increases in amylose content found in lines carrying two ssIIa null alleles and one partially functional ssIIa allele. Seeds from all ssIIa triple mutants had significantly higher amylose and protein contents but also lower starch content, kernel weight, and flour swelling power compared with their wild‐type sister lines. Seed starch amylose content was negatively correlated with individual kernel weight (r = –0.54), starch content (r = –0.85), and flour swelling power (r = –0.91) but positively correlated with grain protein (r = 0.78), demonstrating that unique ssIIa triple mutant null combinations confer defined levels of seed starch amylose, protein content, and kernel size. The ssIIa mutant lines also had a hard grain texture (≈86 single kernel characterization system units), whereas all parental material and wild‐type sister lines had soft grain texture (≈35). This change in grain texture was independent of Ha locus genotype, because all lines carried a functional (soft type) Ha locus. The ssIIa alleles and allelic combinations reported here demonstrate the ability to create defined levels of seed starch, amylose, and protein.

Physiochemical Characteristics and Molecular Structures for Digestible Carbohydrates of Silages.

The main objectives of this study were (1) to assess the magnitude of differences among new barley silage varieties (BS) selected for varying rates of in vitro neutral detergent fiber (NDF) digestibility (ivNDFD; Cowboy BS with higher ivNDFD, Copeland BS with intermediate ivNDFD, and Xena BS with lower ivNDFD) with regard to their carbohydrate (CHO) molecular makeup, CHO chemical fractions, and rumen degradability in dairy cows in comparison with a new corn silage hybrid (Pioneer 7213R) and (2) to quantify the strength and pattern of association between the molecular structures and digestibility of carbohydrates. The carbohydrate-related molecular structure spectral data was measured using advanced vibrational molecular spectroscopy (FT/IR). In comparison to BS, corn silage showed a significantly (P < 0.05) higher level of starch and energy content and higher degradation of dry matter (DM). Cowboy BS had lower feeding value (higher indigestible fiber content and lower starch content) and lower DM degradation in the rumen compared to other BS varieties (P < 0.05). The spectral intensities of carbohydrates were significantly (P < 0.05) correlated with digestible carbohydrate content of the silages. In conclusion, the univariate approach with only one-factor consideration (ivNDFD) might not be a satisfactory method for evaluating and ranking BS quality. FT/IR molecular spectroscopy can be used to evaluate silage quality rapidly, particularly the digestible fiber content.

Grain and Nutritional Quality Traits of Southwestern U.S. Blue Maize Landraces

Anthocyanin‐rich Southwestern blue maize (Zea mays L.) landraces are receiving interest as functional foods, and commercial production is increasing. We determined variation in kernel color, anthocyanin content, texture, and selected compositional traits of representative varieties. In 2013, eight varieties were grown at four locations in New Mexico. Total kernel anthocyanin content (TAC) and component pigments were measured with spectrophotometry and HPLC, respectively. Oil, protein, starch, and kernel density were determined using NIR spectroscopy and amino acid concentrations using wet chemistry. An average of 49.6 mg/100 g of TAC with a range of 17.6–65.1 mg/100 g was observed. Cyanidin and pelargonidin were major components, and peonidin and succinyl 3‐glucoside were minor components. Low levels of disuccinyl glucoside were detected. Blue kernels were higher in anthocyanin than purple or red kernels. Floury kernels displayed the highest protein and oil contents and the lowest starch content and kernel density. The highest starch and kernel density levels were observed in small flint/dent and pop‐flint/dent kernels. Amino acid content was variable across genotypes and locations.