low-SES Youth Research Articles

Socioeconomic disparities in household secondhand smoke exposure among non-smoking adolescents in the Republic of Korea

ABSTRACTThis nationally representative study examined (a) gender and age differences in household secondhand smoke exposure (HSHSE) and (b) associations between socioeconomic status (SES) and HSHSE among non-smoking Korean adolescents. Two subsamples were analysed: males (n = 25,648) and females (n = 30,240). The HSHSE measures were incidence of HSHSE (yes/no) and number of days of HSHSE (1–7 days); the SES measures were parental education, perceived economic status, and family wealth. For the first aim, chi-square test, t-test, and bivariate negative binomial regression analysis were performed; For the second aim, multivariate logistic regression and negative binomial regression analyses were performed. The incidence and number of days of HSHSE were significantly higher among females (32.35% and 3.48 days) than males (26.83% and 3.08 days). The HSHSE incidence was significantly higher among younger adolescents (23.32% to 31.08% of males and 26.58% to 37.03% of females). Lower SES was associated with (a) greater odds of HSHSE (odds ratio: 1.12–1.58 among males and 1.19–1.85 among females) and (b) greater incidence rates of HSHSE (incidence rate ratio: 1.05–1.17 among males and 1.10–1.14 among females). Efforts should be made to decrease HSHSE among adolescents, particularly low-SES youth.

Health disparities among youth with type 1 diabetes: A systematic review of the current literature.

Research in pediatric Type 1 diabetes (T1D) has reliably identified differences in health outcomes based on race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status (SES). Racial/ethnic minority and/or low-SES youth consistently display poorer physical health and psychological functioning than racial/ethnic majority and higher-SES youth. The purpose of this review is to better understand health disparities in T1D by race/ethnicity and SES, and to provide recommendations for researchers based on these findings. Articles were obtained from PsycINFO, PubMed, and Web of Knowledge with search terms: "Type 1 diabetes," "ethnic," "pediatric," "race/ethnicity," "race," "socioeconomic status," "SES," and "income." Criteria for inclusion were (a) Type 1 diabetes cases, (b) child or adolescent samples, (c) information about health or psychosocial outcomes grouped by race/ethnicity or SES, (d) no intervention data, (e) peer-reviewed, (f), English-language, and (g) published in an academic journal. Twenty-seven articles reported on health outcomes and 4 articles reported on psychosocial outcomes. Across 16 studies, racial/ethnic minority youth displayed higher HbA1c levels compared to Caucasian youth. Eighteen studies reported that lower-SES youth had higher HbA1c levels than higher-SES youth. Four studies found racial/ethnic minority youth and lower-SES youth had poorer psychological functioning than Caucasian youth or higher-SES youth. Findings from our review suggest an association between race/ethnicity, SES, and health outcomes in pediatric T1D. Researchers should consider developing interventions that take into account factors which may place children from racial/ethnic minority and lower-SES backgrounds at risk for poor metabolic control and emotional functioning. Future research should examine causative mechanisms of health disparities.

Self-control forecasts better psychosocial outcomes but faster epigenetic aging in low-SES youth

There are persistent socioeconomic disparities in many aspects of child development in America. Relative to their affluent peers, children of low socioeconomic status (SES) complete fewer years of education, have a higher prevalence of health problems, and are convicted of more criminal offenses. Based on research indicating that low self-control underlies some of these disparities, policymakers have begun incorporating character-skills training into school curricula and social services. However, emerging data suggest that for low-SES youth, self-control may act as a "double-edged sword," facilitating academic success and psychosocial adjustment, while at the same time undermining physical health. Here, we examine this hypothesis in a five-wave study of 292 African American teenagers from rural Georgia. From ages 17 to 20 y, we assessed SES and self-control annually, along with depressive symptoms, substance use, aggressive behavior, and internalizing problems. At age 22 y, we obtained DNA methylation profiles of subjects' peripheral blood mononuclear cells. These data were used to measure epigenetic aging, a methylation-derived biomarker reflecting the disparity between biological and chronological aging. Among high-SES youth, better mid-adolescent self-control presaged favorable psychological and methylation outcomes. However, among low-SES youth, self-control had divergent associations with these outcomes. Self-control forecasted lower rates of depressive symptoms, substance use, aggressive behavior, and internalizing problems but faster epigenetic aging. These patterns suggest that for low-SES youth, resilience is a "skin-deep" phenomenon, wherein outward indicators of success can mask emerging problems with health. These findings have conceptual implications for models of resilience, and practical implications for interventions aimed at ameliorating social and racial disparities.

Educational success among elementary school children from low socioeconomic status families: A systematic review of research assessing parenting factors

Prior research has focused primarily on the educational benefits of high socioeconomic status (SES). Little is known about educationally successful youth from low-SES backgrounds, and no published review has systematically evaluated the methodological characteristics of research in this area. The primary aim of this report was to systematically review methodological characteristics of research identifying parenting factors conducive to the educational success of low-SES youth. A secondary aim was to briefly summarize the substantive findings of research in this area. A bibliographic search of 11 electronic databases, a manual search of two journals, and reference harvesting yielded 30 English-language studies published between 1994 and 2014 employing quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-method designs that met a-priori study eligibility criteria. Studies of parent–school involvement, parental expectations for current and long-term academic performance, and warm, responsive, and consistent parenting styles...

A family-oriented psychosocial intervention reduces inflammation in low-SES African American youth.

Children of low socioeconomic status (SES) are at elevated risk for health problems across the lifespan. Observational studies suggest that nurturant parenting might offset some of these health risks, but their design precludes inferences about causal direction and clinical utility. Here we ask whether a psychosocial intervention, focused improving parenting, strengthening family relationships, and building youth competencies, can reduce inflammation in low-SES, African Americans from the rural South. The trial involved 272 mothers and their 11-y-old children from rural Georgia, half of whose annual household incomes were below the federal poverty line. Families were randomly assigned to a 7-wk psychosocial intervention or to a control condition. When youth reached age 19, peripheral blood was collected to quantify six cytokines that orchestrate inflammation, the dysregulation of which contributes to many of the health problems known to pattern by SES. Youth who participated in the intervention had significantly less inflammation on all six indicators relative to controls (all P values < 0.001; effect sizes in Cohen's d units ranged from -0.69 to -0.91). Mediation analyses suggested that improved parenting was partially responsible for the intervention's benefits. Inflammation was lowest among youth who received more nurturant-involved parenting, and less harsh-inconsistent parenting, as a consequence of the intervention. These findings have theoretical implications for research on resilience to adversity and the early origins of disease. If substantiated, they may also highlight a strategy for practitioners and policymakers to use in ameliorating social and racial health disparities.

Role Models and the Psychological Characteristics That Buffer Low‐Socioeconomic‐Status Youth From Cardiovascular Risk

Little is understood about why some youth from low-socioeconomic-status (SES) environments exhibit good health despite adversity. This study tested whether role models and "shift-and-persist" approaches (reframing stressors more benignly while persisting with future optimism) protect low-SES youth from cardiovascular risk. A total of 163 youth, ages 13-16, completed role model interviews and shift-and-persist measures while cholesterol and inflammatory markers, interleukin-6 (IL-6), and C-reactive protein were assessed. Low-SES youth with supportive role models had lower IL-6. Low-SES youth high in shift-and-persist also had lower IL-6. Shift-and-persist partially mediated the interaction of SES and role models on IL-6. Benefits were not found among high-SES youth. Identifying psychological buffers in low-SES youth has implications for health disparities.

Applying Bayesian Modeling and Receiver Operating Characteristic Methodologies for Test Utility Analysis

This study integrated Bayesian hierarchical modeling and receiver operating characteristic analysis (BROCA) to evaluate how interest strength (IS) and interest differentiation (ID) predicted low–socioeconomic status (SES) youth’s interest-major congruence (IMC). Using large-scale Kuder Career Search online-assessment data, this study fit three models, the one-level BROCA, the two-level BROCA, and the ordinal Probit BROCA, to examine the moderating effects of gender and race/ethnicity. Both IS and ID displayed race/ethnicity differences in predicting low-SES females’ IMC. Gender difference was found only on IS in predicting low-SES youth’s IMC. Results suggested that low-SES White males and low-SES minority females may need help the most to develop stronger career interests and to differentiate their interests. This study illustrated that BROCA can be a powerful tool for test evaluation and utility analysis in the field because of its capacity of analyzing continuous, nominal, and ordinal data; its graphical nature of result presentation; multiple statistical test options; and its little requirement of Level 2 sample sizes.

U.S. Juvenile Arrests

This study addresses the link between gang membership and arrest frequency, exploring the Gang × Socioeconomic status interaction on those arrests. Notoriously poor, delinquent, and often well-known to police, America’s gang youth should have very high odds of arrest. Yet it is unclear whether mere membership in a gang increases the risk of arrest or whether it must be accompanied by high levels of delinquency to have an effect. There are surprisingly few tests of the arrest risk associated solely with group membership. The several studies that provide such a test have yielded mixed results. Revisiting this issue with longitudinal youth data for the nation, random effects Poisson models find main effects for gang membership and SES on arrest, controlling for demographic and legal items. However, interaction effects obtain paradoxical findings consistent with research on “out-of-place” effects for high-SES gang youth, and protective effects for low-SES gang youth. These findings are discussed in terms of their implications for labeling theory and the federal initiative on disproportionate minority contact (DMC) with the juvenile justice system.

Framing the Future: Revisiting the Place of Educational Expectations in Status Attainment

This study revisits the Wisconsin model of status attainment from a life course developmental perspective. Fixed-effects regression analyses lend strong support to the Wisconsin framework's core proposition that academic performance and significant others' influence shape educational expectations. However, investigating the process of expectation formation back to the elementary grades yields insights not evident when analyses are limited to the high school years: (1. many youth consistently expect to attend college from as early as fourth grade; (2. the expectations of middle- and low-SES youth are less stable, and across years the preponderance of their exposure to socialization influences mitigates against sustained college ambitions; (3. long-term stable expectations are more efficacious in forecasting college enrollment than are changing, volatile expectations. As anticipated in the Wisconsin framework, family- and school-based socialization processes indeed contribute to social reproduction through children's educational expectations, but the process starts much earlier and includes dynamics outside the scope of the original status attainment studies.

Untangling race and class effects on juvenile arrests

This study employed a synthesis of conflict and labeling theory to reexamine the often observed links between race, social class, and arrest. Using longitudinal data on a representative sample of U.S. teens, random effects negative binomial regressions detected direct and indirect effects of race and class on arrest. In support of main effects hypotheses, racial minority status and low SES increased arrests, controlling for demographic and legal items. Consistent with research on “out of place” effects for minority youth in high SES contexts, and counter to expectations, interactions showed that racial minority status increased arrest risk for high SES youth significantly more than it did for low SES youth. Somewhat reminiscent of research on the “Latino paradox,” the effect of minority status on arrest at low-income levels did not exert the same interactive effect for Hispanics as it did for Blacks. Implications for theory, policy, and future research are discussed.

Sports Participation and Physical Education in American Secondary Schools: Current Levels and Racial/Ethnic and Socioeconomic Disparities

The purpose of this study was to determine the current levels of physical education (PE) and sports participation among American secondary school students, and to establish the extent to which they vary by grade level, racial/ethnic background, and socioeconomic status (SES) of the students. Nationally representative data were used from over 500 schools and 54,000 students surveyed in 2003, 2004, and 2005 as part of the Youth, Education, and Society (YES) study and the Monitoring the Future (MTF) study. As part of YES, school administrators completed questionnaires on physical activity (including rates of sports and PE participation) of students in their schools. Students in the same schools completed self-administered questionnaires in the same year as part of MTF, providing individual background data, including their gender, racial/ethnic identification, and parents' education level. Data were analyzed in 2006. Physical education requirements, and actual student participation rates, decline substantially between 8th and 12th grades. About 87% of 8th graders were in schools that required them to take PE, compared to only 20% of 12th graders. Principals estimate that over 90% of 8th graders actually take PE, compared to 34% of 12th graders. Subgroup differences in PE participation rates were small. Only a fraction of all students participate in varsity sports during the school year, with girls participating only slightly less than boys (33% vs 37%). Participation correlates negatively with SES and was lower among black and Hispanic students than white students, even after controlling for other variables. Participation rates in intramural sports were even lower, declined in higher grades, and were lower among low-SES and Hispanic students (after controlling for other variables). Physical education is noticeably lacking in American high schools for all groups. Racial/ethnic minorities and low-SES youth, who are at higher than average risk of being overweight in adolescence, are getting less exercise due to their lower participation in school sports. Disparities in resources available to minorities and lower-SES youth may help explain the differences in participation rates.

Factors That Influence Physical Activity Participation Among High- and Low-SES Youth

Researchers have rarely addressed the relationship between socioeconomic status (SES) and physical activity from the perspective of youth. To illuminate the factors that youth from low and high-SES areas consider important to increase physical activity participation among their peers, 160 youth (12-18 years) participated in small focus group interviews. Guiding questions centered on the general theme, "If you were the one in charge of increasing the physical activity levels of kids your age, what would you do?" Findings show that environmental factors (i.e., proximity, cost, facilities, and safety) are very important for youth living in low-SES areas to ensure participation in physical activity. Results also show that intrapersonal (i.e., perceived skill, competence, time) and social factors (i.e., friends, adult support) must be considered to help improve participation rates among both high- and low-SES youth.

Parenting processes and dating violence: The mediating role of self-esteem in low- and high-SES adolescents

The current investigation tested a model in which low self-esteem mediated the effects by parenting processes (monitoring, closeness, and support) on measures of dating violence (victimization, perpetration, attitudes, and perceptions) in a sample of adolescents ( n = 809 ; mean age=16.4 years) from both low- and high-socioeconomic (SES) backgrounds. Hierarchical regression analyses provided evidence that low self-esteem partially mediated the link between parenting processes and dating violence, with unique differences observed between low- and high-SES youth. Specifically, in low-SES youth, low self-esteem mediated the relationship between closeness as well as support and dating violence behaviours, while in high-SES youth, it only mediated the relationship between maternal support and dating violence attitudes.

Smoking initiation in youth: The roles of gender, race, socioeconomics, and developmental status

Purpose: To describe smoking initiation, and to investigate factors that predict the early initiation of smoking in schoolchildren using a longitudinal approach. Methods: A prospective study of smoking habits of children from the third and fourth grades through the eighth and ninth grades. The initial study population was 1970; 79.8% were white and 20.2% were African-American. Children were classified as “nonsmokers,” “experimental smokers,” or “current smokers” at five time points over 6 years. Multivariate regression models examined relationships of demographic and developmental factors with smoking initiation. Results: Experimental smoking increased from 4% at Grades 3–4 to 42% at Grades 8–9, and current smoking prevalence rose from 0.4% to 9% over the same period. The mean age of initiation of smoking was 12.3 years. Smoking initiation (experimental smoking) was significantly different by racial group, socioeconomic status (SES), and pubertal development. White children and those of low SES were more likely to be experimental smokers, and also started earlier than African-American children and children of high SES. Once they started, white children advanced more rapidly to become current smokers. Boys had a higher prevalence of experimental smoking than girls at all time points. Children in rural areas were more likely than urban children to start smoking after age 12 years. Children who were at a higher pubertal stage than their peers were also more likely to experiment with smoking. Conclusions: Race, SES, and pubertal stage are important predictors of initiation of smoking in schoolchildren. This study indicates a need for smoking prevention classes in elementary and middle school, especially in areas with large numbers of white and low-SES youth. Also, smoking cessation programs, as well as smoking prevention classes, would be useful for middle school and high school students.

Interaction Effects of Television and Socioeconomic Status on Teenage Aggression

ABSTRACT In contrast to past research studies which have sought a link between television violence and aggression, the present study sought a link between family-life television content and subsequent aggressive behavior. Based on Berkowitz' theory of the ‘revolution of rising expectations’, it was hypothesized that for youth low socioeconomic status, television portrayals of middle-class lifestyles could constitute a more aversive stimulus than could portrayed violence. Subjects were ethnically homogeneous low and middle socioeconomic status adolescents who were exposed to either a violent or a family-life television program. Aggression was measured in natural, interpersonal socialization, rather than in contrived, artificial criterion measures. No differences were found in aggressive behavior between low and middle SES youth; low SES youth showed no more aggression to family-life television than to violent fare. Research implications and educational suggestions are discussed.

Social Background and Academic Determinants of Two-Year versus Four-Year College Attendance: Evidence from Two Cohorts a Decade Apart

The present paper examines determinants of access to two-year versus four-year colleges among college-going youth. Data from the NLS class of 1972 and the HSB class of 1980 senior high school cohorts are compared to evaluate changes in racial/ethnic, socioeconomic, and gender constraints on enrollment patterns. Academic resource measures (i. e., test performance, high school grades, and high school curriculum) also are examined in order to assess the patterning and magnitude of such disparities when academic qualifications are equivalent. There is little evidence of diminished opportunity to attend a four-year college when the experiences of 1980 high school graduates are compared with those from 1972. In general, social background had little bearing on attendance patterns, although Hispanic youth were noticeably less likely than either whites or blacks to attend four-year colleges. Low-SES youth were modestly disadvantaged at both periods, but blacks were somewhat more likely than whites to enroll in four-year schools. Academic resource measures differentiated attendance patterns more than student background factors, but these differences too were not especially large. One implication is that, once youngsters have successfully negotiated the high school to college transition, opportunities to attend a four-year college as opposed to a two-year college are not greatly constrained by either social or academic considerations. In this sense, the postsecondary system is strikingly open. When academic resource variables are controlled, SES constraints on attendance patterns are greatly diminished, affecting only the enrollment prospects of white youngsters--and even for them only modestly. Blacks evidence the highest four-year attendance probabilities and Hispanics the lowest at all resource levels. In general, these disparities are greatest among youth who are most lacking in traditional academic credentials. Gender differences and cohort differences are small throughout.

School Performance, Status Relations, and the Structure of Sentiment: Bringing the Teacher Back In

Research has failed to support the assumption that the academic difficulties of many minority and low-SES youth are due to their outsider standing relative to the middle-class culture that dominates schools. This study suggests that this proposition exaggerates the cultural hegemony of educational operations. Data on children in the first grade of a large, socially heterogeneous urban public school system show that not all teachers are given to status-related biases. Rather, teachers' own social origins exercise a strong influence on how they react to the status attributes of their students. In particular, low-status and minority pupils experience their greatest difficulties in the classrooms of high-status teachers. They are evaluated by their teachers as less mature, their teachers hold lower performance expectations for them, and their teachers score exceptionally low on perceived-school-climate measures. Moreover, year-end marks and standardized-test scores of such pupils apparently are depressed by these indicators of pupil-teacher social distance and teacher disaffection. A model of pupil-teacher background congruence is proposed as an alternative to the cultural hegemony framework, and the implications of such fit for the interpersonal dynamics of the classroom are discussed.