Low Mean Stress Research Articles

Thermal cycling aging effects on the ratcheting behavior of anisotropic conductive film

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to determine: how the thermal cycling aging affects the ratcheting behavior of anisotropic conductive adhesive film (ACF); how the loading conditions and loading history affect the ratcheting strain and strain rate of ACF with different thermal cycling aging histories. Design/methodology/approach – The ACF of CP6920F was cured at 190°C in an electro-thermal vacuum drying apparatus for 30 s. The cured specimens were put into the thermal cycling chamber (−40-150°C) for aging to 25, 50, 100, 200 and 500 cycles. A series of uniaxial ratcheting tests of aged ACF after different thermal cycles was carried out under stress control at 80°C. Findings – The ACF subjected to larger number of thermal aging cycles exhibits less ratcheting strain under the same loading conditions. The ACF with the same thermal cycling aging history shows more ratcheting strain and a higher ratcheting strain rate when loaded under a larger mean stress or stress amplitude or a lower loading rate. The ratcheting behavior of aged ACF is found to be more sensitive to the lower loading rate. The higher mean stress (or stress amplitude) enhances the deformation resistance and consequently restrains the ratcheting strain of subsequent cycling with a lower mean stress (or stress amplitude). The prior lower loading rate accelerates the plastic deformation more significantly than the higher one. Originality/value – The influencing trends of thermal cycling aging, loading condition and loading history on ratcheting behavior of ACF are obtained, which is important for the design and safety assessment of ACF joints.

Recent advances in mechanical properties of anisotropic conductive adhesive film for microelectronic packaging

Purpose– This review paper aims to provide a better understanding of formulation and processing of anisotropic conductive adhesive film (ACF) material and to summarize the significant research and development work for the mechanical properties of ACF material and joints, which helps to the development and application of ACF joints with better reliability in microelectronic packaging systems.Design/methodology/approach– The ACF material was cured at high temperature of 190°C, and the cured ACF was tested by conducting the tensile experiments with uniaxial and cyclic loads. The ACF joint was obtained with process of pre-bonding and final bonding. The impact tests and shear tests of ACF joints were completed with different aging conditions such as high temperature, thermal cycling and hygrothermal aging.Findings– The cured ACF exhibited unique time-, temperature- and loading rate-dependent behaviors and a strong memory of loading history. Prior stress cycling with higher mean stress or stress amplitude restrained the ratcheting strain in subsequent cycling with lower mean stress or stress amplitude. The impact strength and adhesive strength of ACF joints increased with increase of bonding temperature, but they decreased with increase of environment temperature. The adhesive strength and life of ACF joints decreased with hygrothermal aging, whereas increased firstly and then decreased with thermal cycling.Originality/value– This study is to review the recent investigations on the mechanical properties of ACF material and joints in microelectronic packaging applications.

The effect of low cycle fatigue, ratcheting and mean stress relaxation on stress–strain response and microstructural development in a dual phase steel

This study examines the cyclic plastic deformation behavior and microstructural development of a dual phase steel in both symmetric and asymmetric cycling in strain and stress control modes. The low-cycle fatigue (LCF) and mean stress relaxation (MSR) tests show very similar fatigue lifetimes. However, fatigue lifetimes reduce and prominent accumulation of directional strain was observed in ratcheting. A microstructural analysis has revealed that the type of cyclic test carried out has a noticeable impact on the substructural development, and this has been correlated with differences in accumulated tensile strain. Electron backscatter diffraction investigation has shown larger in-grain misorientation for ratcheting specimen in comparison with LCF and MSR specimens. The orientation of ferrite grains was found to have very little effect on their substructural development, and strain localization commonly occurred in the ferrite at the ferrite/martensite interface.

Strain localisation and grain breakage in sand under shearing at high mean stress: insights from in situ X-ray tomography

This work presents results from a series of triaxial compression tests on two quartz sands (differing principally in grain shape), at confining pressures high enough to cause grain breakage during shearing. Tests are performed inside an X-ray scanner, which allows specimens to be imaged non-destructively as they deform. Observation of the acquired images clearly shows different mechanisms of deformation, including shearing, dilation, compaction and grain breakage. These mechanisms are investigated quantitatively through 3D measurements of local porosity, as well as strain (obtained by 3D Digital image correlation), which is analysed in terms of volumetric and shear components. These tools allow the transition between macroscopically dilative (typically of a dense sand at low mean stress) and compactive behaviour to be investigated. The analysis reveals that at the high end of the confining pressure range studied (100–7,000 kPa), the more rounded sand deforms with highly localised shear and volumetric strain—the porosity fields show a dilative band within which a compactive region (due to grain crushing) grows. The more angular material shows shear strain localisation; however, its faster transition to compactive behaviour (due to a higher propensity for individual grains to crush) translates to much more distributed compactive volumetric strain.

Use of acoustic emissions to investigate localization in high-porosity sandstone subjected to true triaxial stresses

Acoustic emissions were used to investigate the evolution of damage and strain localization in Castlegate sandstone specimens subjected to true triaxial states of stress, where the intermediate principal stress ranged from equal to minimum compression to equal to maximum compression. Three failure modes were observed: shear band formation at low mean stresses, compaction localization at intermediate stresses, and no localization at high mean stresses. For shear bands, the onset of localization consistently occurred prior to peak stress, while compaction localization initiated at the beginning of a stress plateau. The band angle (defined as the angle between the band normal and the maximum compression direction) determined by fitting a plane through the localized acoustic emission events corresponded well with the shear band angle expressed on the specimen jacket. As expected, the band angle decreased with increasing mean stress. The theoretically predicted dependence of band angle on deviatoric stress state was not confirmed; however, data scatter due to natural variations in material could obscure such a trend. Each failure mode displayed a unique acoustic emission rate response; therefore, this rate response alone can be used to determine the failure mode and the onset of localization in Castlegate sandstone.

Uniaxial time‐dependent ratcheting behavior of bronze powder filled polytetrafluoroethylene at room and high temperature

A series of tensile and ratcheting experiments for cold compaction polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) and bronze filled PTFE (PTFE/bronze) were conducted with Dynamic Mechanical Analyzer (DMA‐Q800) at room and high temperature (473 K). The effects of peak stress‐holding time, creep, recovery, mean stress history, stress‐rate history, and pretension on the ratcheting behavior of PTFE/bronze were investigated. It is found that longer peak stress‐holding time leads to larger ratcheting strain accumulation. In the meantime, the ratcheting strain accumulates more rapidly at high temperature and the influence of temperature is more obvious than that of the additive fraction of bronze. Creep strain produced during the uploading and the stress‐holding time only partially recovers in the unloading process. Moreover, prior lower stress rate enhances the deformation resistance and restrains the ratcheting of subsequent cycling at higher stress rate. The ratcheting strain in the subsequent cyclic loading at lower mean stress is also restrained by previous cyclic loading at higher mean stress. Finally, the elastic modulus increases and the ratcheting strain is restrained apparently after the pretension. In addition, the elastic modulus and ratcheting strain of the PTFE/bronze with both pretension and recovery are smaller than those with pretension but without recovery. POLYM. ENG. SCI., 54:1571–1578, 2014. © 2013 Society of Plastics Engineers

The influence of water and supercritical CO2 on the failure behavior of chalk

Abstract Reduction of compressive strength by injection of water into chalk is a well-known mechanism responsible for increased compaction in chalk reservoirs. This raises the question of whether such effects might be enhanced in the context of long-term storage of CO 2 or of CO 2 injection for enhanced oil and gas recovery (EOR/EGR) purposes. Therefore, data regarding the effect of supercritical CO 2 on the mechanical behavior of chalk are needed. The effect of supercritical CO 2 on the short-term failure behavior of wet chalk was accordingly investigated by means of conventional triaxial deformation experiments, performed on Maastrichtian chalk cores under dry conditions, in the presence of saturated chalk solution and using CO 2 -saturated solution at temperatures simulating reservoir conditions (20–80 °C) and effective confining pressures up to 7 MPa. Increasing temperature from 20 to 80 °C did not show any significant effects on the strength of the dry samples. Addition of aqueous solution to the samples led to drastic weakening of the chalk, the effect being more pronounced at high effective confining pressures (Peff > 3 MPa). Addition of 10 MPa supercritical CO 2 to wet samples did not produce any significant additional effect in comparison with the wet samples. All samples showed a yield strength envelope characterized by shear failure at low effective mean stresses giving way to a compaction cap at high mean stresses. The weakening effect of aqueous solution was explained in terms of a reduction in frictional resistance of the material, due to water-enhanced grain-contact cracking, and perhaps pressure solution, with a possible contribution by disjoining pressure effects caused by water adsorption. While CO 2 does not seem to reduce short-term failure strength of wet chalk, processes such as intergranular pressure solution have to be considered for assessing mechanical stability of chalk in the context of long-term CO 2 storage or EOR/EGR operations.

Stress-based fatigue life prediction models for AZ31B magnesium alloy under single-step and multi-step asymmetric stress-controlled cyclic loadings

The uniaxial ratcheting and low-cycle fatigue failure behaviors of the hot-rolled AZ31B magnesium alloy are studied by the asymmetric cyclic stress-controlled experiments at room temperature. The effects of loading histories with the variable mean stress, stress amplitude and stress rate on the ratcheting respond and fatigue life of the studied magnesium alloy are discussed. Considering the combined effects of ratcheting damage and fatigue damage on the material failure, the stress-based fatigue life prediction models are developed to evaluate the low-cycle fatigue life under the single-step and multi-step cyclic loadings. Results show that (1) the prior stress cycling with high mean stress or stress amplitude restrains the ratcheting strain in the subsequent cycling with low mean stress or stress amplitude. (2) Due to the rate-independent property of the studied material at room temperature, the effects of the loading history with variable stress rate on the ratcheting behavior are not obvious. (3) The comparisons between the measured and predicted results confirm that the developed model can give an accurate estimate of the low-cycle fatigue life for the hot-rolled AZ31B magnesium alloy under the single-step and multi-step asymmetric stress-controlled cyclic loadings.

Response of Castlegate sandstone to true triaxial states of stress

A suite of true triaxial tests were performed on Castlegate sandstone to assess the influence of the intermediate principal stress on mechanical response and failure. Five independent deviatoric stress states were employed, for which the intermediate principal stress ranged from equal to minimum compression (axisymmetric compression) to maximum compression (axisymmetric extension). For each deviatoric stress state, five constant mean stress tests were conducted, covering mean stresses ranging from brittle to ductile failure. At low mean stresses, shear bands formed, and the peak stress required to induce failure decreased with increasing intermediate principal stress. Thus, failure at low mean stresses depends on the third invariant of deviatoric stress. Shear bands formed under all deviatoric stress states and over a wide range of mean stresses. The band angle (defined as the angle between the band normal and the direction of maximum compression) decreased with increasing mean stress. There was no clear trend in band angle with respect to intermediate principal stress; however, a small trend would be obscured by data scatter due to specimen variability. At higher mean stresses, no localization was observed. The upper bound mean stress at which shear localization occurred increased with increasing intermediate principal stress. Therefore, the mean stress that demarcates the brittle‐ductile transition depends on the third invariant of deviatoric stress.

Fatigue Strength of HFMI Treated Structures Under High R-ratio and Variable Amplitude Loading

High frequency mechanical impact (HFMI) is a post-weld treatment method for improving fatigue strength of welded joints. Much of the experimental research on fatigue performance of HFMI treated welded joints has concentrated on the beneficial compressive residual stresses created by the treatment and the fatigue strength of these joints under constant amplitude loading and relatively low mean stresses. Critical experimental data has been developed in a nearly completed European RFCS project. New mean stress and variable amplitude fatigue data are presented and evaluated with respect to a proposed International Institute of Welding (IIW) design guideline concerning HFMI treated welded joints.

A New Model for Fatigue Damage Accumulation of Austenitic Stainless Steel Under Variable Amplitude Loading

The application of Miner's rule using a loading issued from a mock-up of a RHR system (removal heat system) of PWR plant, made of 304 steel gives a very important non-conservative fatigue life in strain control when strain fatigue curve is used. This result is due to the absence of sequence effect in Miner's rule. Many non linear damage accumulation models have been proposed to get a sequence effect. Shortcomings of some non linear damage accumulation models are discussed. So Smith-Watson-Topper and Fatemi-Socie criterions with a linear damage accumulation rule are then applied to experimental data. A major issue is the need for an elastic-plastic constitutive law which is difficult to propose in the presence of high cycle secondary hardening observed in austenitic stainless steels. A conservative model for fatigue damage accumulation under variable amplitude loading is then proposed for austenitic stainless steels in strain control, which does not need a constitutive law, but takes into account plasticity through cyclic strain stress curve. The model uses a linear damage accumulation rule. This model is based on the fact that for stainless steels, pre-hardening is detrimental for fatigue life in strain control, while it is beneficial in stress control. In the presence of low mean stress, the model is approved based on a large number of tests. Moreover the model allows to explain the larger detrimental effect of a tension mean stress in strain control tests than in stress control tests.

Geological and geochemical constraints on genesis of the Liziyuan gold-dominated polymetal deposit, western Qinling orogen, central China

The Liziyuan gold deposit, located on the northern margin of the western Qinling orogen (WQO), consists of five mineralized sites hosted by metavolcanic rocks, and one hosted by the Tianzishan monzogranite. Orebodies mainly occur as lenticular veins along NW-striking dextral ductile strike–slip shear zones. Major wall rock alteration includes silicification, pyritization, and carbonation, progressively increasing in intensity towards the orebodies. Ore minerals are dominated by pyrite, galena, and chalcopyrite; the major gangue minerals are quartz and calcite. Native gold is present chiefly as separate phases in sulphide and quartz microfractures. We recognize four stages of mineralization: (I) pyrite-quartz, (II) native gold-chalcopyrite-pyrite-quartz, (III) pyrite-freibergite-galena-quartz-carbonate, and (IV) carbonate stages. Fluid inclusion petrography and microthermometric results suggest that three types of primary fluid inclusions (carbonic, CO2–H2O, and aqueous) are present in the deposit. Microthermometric data and Laser Raman analyses indicate that the ores were deposited from moderate temperature (240–280°C), low salinity (0.5–9.1 wt.% NaCl equiv.) H2O–NaCl–CO2–(CH4) fluids. The common coexistence of aqueous, CO2–H2O, and carbonic inclusions indicates the trapping of heterogeneous immiscible fluids. Trace elements in mineralized quartz and carbonate veins suggest that the ore-forming fluids were mainly produced by prograde metamorphism of the upper crust. The calculated and δD values are 1.8–3.8‰ and –77‰ to –75‰, respectively, for quartz from stage II and –8.5‰ to –6.6‰ and –72‰ to –71‰ for calcite from stage III, implying that the ore-forming fluids were metamorphic in origin and evolved by late-stage mixing with meteoric water. Pyrite and galena have δ34S values of 3.9–8.5‰ with a pronounced mode at 5–8‰. Such relatively homogeneous sulphur isotopic compositions are consistent with orogenic gold deposits throughout the world, indicating that the sulphur was mainly sourced from reduced metamorphic fluids. The Liziyuan gold deposit can be grouped with other orogenic gold deposits that have similar characteristics. Geological observations and available isotopic ages suggest that the Liziyuan lode mineralization was related to the Indosinian orogenesis of the Qinling belt. Triassic continental collision caused crustal thickening, dextral ductile shearing, and greenschist facies metamorphism throughout the orogen. Due to the intensive deformation and metamorphism, crustal rocks released copious fluids that evidently mobilized and extracted ore elements along their flow pathways. The ductile shear zone in the Liziyuan mining area provided regions of low mean stress and high permeability, and thus appeared to be preferential channels for precipitation of the ore-forming fluids. As highly charged fluids migrated into the high permeability shear zones, rapid changes in physicochemical conditions resulted in sulphide precipitation and gold mineralization.

Effect of strain ratio on cyclic deformation and fatigue of extruded AZ61A magnesium alloy

Strain-controlled fatigue experiments were conducted on an extruded AZ61A magnesium alloy at three strain ratios (Rɛ=−∞, −1, 0) using smooth tubular specimens. As the strain ratio decreased, stronger cyclic hardening, more asymmetric hysteresis loop, smaller stress amplitude, lower mean stress, and higher initial plastic strain amplitude were observed. These phenomena were associated with twinning in the compressive phase and detwinning in the tensile phase during cyclic deformation. At the same strain amplitude, fatigue life increased with decreasing strain ratio. The strain-fatigue life curve at each strain ratio exhibited a distinguishable kink. Such a kink point represents a demarcation point above which persistent twinning–detwinning occurs under cyclic loading. Two Smith, Watson, and Topper (SWT) fatigue criteria can predict the fatigue lives of the material at all strain ratios satisfactorily.

Predicting the Fatigue Life in Steel and Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastics Using Damage Models

Three cumulative damage models are examined for the case of cyclic loading of AISI 6150 steel, S2 glass fibre/epoxy and E glass fibre/epoxy composites. The Palmgren-Miner, Broutman-Sahu and Hashin-Rotem models are compared to determine which of the three gives the most accurate estimation of the fatigue life of the materials tested. In addition, comparison of the fatigue life of the materials shows the superiority of AISI 6150 steel and S2 glass fibre/epoxy at lower mean stresses, and that of steel to the composites at higher mean stresses.

Uniaxial ratchetting behavior of anisotropic conductive adhesive film under cyclic tension

Polymer-based conductive adhesive materials have become widely used in many electronic packaging interconnect applications. Uniaxial ratchetting behavior of anisotropic conductive adhesive film (ACF) was studied by uniaxial cyclic tension experiments. The effects of mean stress, stress amplitude and loading history on the ratchetting response of ACF material were analyzed. Results show that (1) the ratchetting strain amplitude and ratchetting strain rate of the ACF material increase with increasing stress amplitude or mean stress; (2) the ACF material has a strong memory of loading history. Prior stress cycling with higher mean stress or stress amplitude restrains the ratchetting strain in subsequent cycling with lower mean stress or stress amplitude. Prior stress cycling with higher stress rate will accelerate the plastic deformation of subsequent cycling with lower stress rate for the ACF material.

Uniaxial ratcheting and fatigue behaviors of low-temperature sintered nano-scale silver paste at room and high temperatures

Uniaxial ratcheting and fatigue behaviors of low-temperature sintered silver films at room and high temperatures were studied experimentally and particular attention was paid to the influence of ratcheting to fatigue. The effects of stress amplitude, mean stress, stress rate, temperature, peak stress holding time and loading history on the ratcheting response of sintered silver films were analyzed, respectively. Firstly, it can be concluded that the ratcheting strain amplitude and ratcheting strain rate of the material increase with increasing stress amplitude or mean stress, correspondingly. Secondly, the experimental results indicate that ratcheting strain increases significantly with the increasing temperature and decreasing stress rate. Thirdly, the material was found having a strong memorization on loading history, the prior stress cycling with low stress amplitude or mean stress can greatly retard the strain accumulation under subsequent loading conditions. Fourthly, the strain accumulation with peak stress holding time is larger than that without hold time at high temperatures, but the ratcheting evolution with and without hold time is almost equal at room temperature. Finally, it was found that the fatigue failure of sintered silver paste is dominated by ratcheting response especially for high temperature and long peak stress holding time. The factors such as stress rate, temperature and peak stress holding time also have a significant influence on fatigue life since they all greatly affected ratcheting behavior of the material.

Fatigue analysis of threaded connections using the local strain approach

The fatigue assessment of bolts and bolted joints is done using nominal approach, for example the German VDI guideline 2230 . For threaded components, the nominal approach and therefore the guideline is no more applicable. The calculation of the fatigue strength of threaded connections according to the German FKM guideline “Analytical strength assessment for machine components” does not lead to satisfying solutions. So far, there is no procedure for the assessment of general threaded connections. Based on the mechanics of the local strain approach the paper shows a fatigue assessment of threaded components and general threaded connections. Prediction results are compared to own experimental data from tested bolt and nut connections in different nominal sizes, different strength categories and subjected to high and low mean stress. A simple model to describe the local cyclic creep as a function of stress amplitude is developed. Furthermore the phenomena related to transferability (size, stress gradients, multiaxiality, crack growth) are discussed.

Towards a volcanic–structural balance: relative importance of volcanism, folding, and remobilisation of nickel sulphides at the Perseverance Ni–Cu–(PGE) deposit, Western Australia

Perseverance is a world-class, komatiite-hosted nickel sulphide deposit situated in the well-endowed Leinster nickel camp of the Agnew–Wiluna greenstone belt, Western Australia. The mine stratigraphy at Perseverance trends north-northwest (NNW), dips steeply to the west, and is overturned. Stratigraphic footwall units lie along the western margin of the Perseverance Ultramafic Complex (PUC). The PUC comprises a basal nickel sulphide-bearing orthocumulate- to mesocumulate-textured komatiite that is overlain by a thicker, nickel sulphide-poor, dunite lens. Hanging wall rocks include rhyodacite that is texturally and compositionally similar to footwall volcanic rocks. These rocks separate the PUC from a second sequence of nickeliferous, E-facing, spinifex-textured komatiite units (i.e. the East Perseverance komatiite). Past workers argue for a conformable stratigraphic contact between the PUC and the East Perseverance komatiite and conclude that the PUC is extrusive. This study, however, clearly demonstrates that these komatiite sequences are discordant, implying that the PUC may have intruded rhyodacite country rock as a sill with subsequent structural juxtaposition against the East Perseverance komatiite. Early N–S shortening associated with the regional DI deformation event (corresponding to the local DP1 to DP3 events at Perseverance) resulted in the heterogeneous partitioning of strain along the margins of the competent dunite. A mylonite developed in the more ductile footwall rocks along the footwall margin of the PUC, while isoclinal F3 folds, such as the Hanging wall limb and Felsic Nose folds, formed in low-mean stress domains along the fringes of the elongated dunite lens. Strata-bound massive and disseminated nickel sulphides were passively fold thickened in hinge areas of isoclinal folds, whereas basal massive sulphides lubricated fold limbs and promoted thrust movement along shallowly dipping lithological contacts. Massive sulphides were physically remobilised up to 20 m from their primary footwall position into deposit-scale fold hinges to form the 1A and Felsic Nose orebodies. First-order controls on the geometry of the Perseverance deposit include the thermomechanical erosion of footwall rocks and the channelling of the mineralised komatiitic magma. Second- or third-order controls are several postvolcanic deformation events, which resulted in the progressive folding and shearing of the footwall contact, as well as the passive fold thickening of massive and disseminated sulphide orebodies. Massive sulphides were physically remobilised into multiple generations of fold hinges and shear zones. Important implications for near-mine exploration in the Leinster camp include identifying nickeliferous komatiite units, defining their three-dimensional geometry, and targeting fold hinge areas. Fold plunge directions and stretching lineations are indicators of potential plunge directions of massive sulphide orebodies.

Effect of small notch and absorbed hydrogen on the fatigue fracture in two‐step stress test within fatigue limit diagram

ABSTRACTIt is usually regarded as a common understanding that fatigue failure would not occur if all stresses were kept within fatigue limit diagram. However, it was shown that fatigue failure occurred in some special cases of variable amplitude loading condition even when all stresses were kept within fatigue limit diagram in the case of small‐notched specimen. The cause of such a phenomenon was examined using two‐step stress pattern for low alloy steel SCM440H. In the case of constant stress amplitude loading, non‐propagating crack was formed only at low mean stress and not formed at high mean stress. However, in the case of two‐step stress pattern in which the first step stress was chosen as R =−1 and the second step stress was with high mean stress, a non‐propagating crack was formed by the first step stress. This crack functioned as a pre‐crack for the second step stress with high mean stress. Consequently, fatigue failure occurred by the stresses within fatigue limit diagram. In this study, the effect of notch size and shape were examined. The effect of absorbed hydrogen was also investigated. Absorption of 0.3 ppm hydrogen caused more reduction of fatigue limit.

Effect of strain ratio and strain rate on low cycle fatigue behavior of AZ31 wrought magnesium alloy

Magnesium alloys are increasingly used in automotive and aerospace industries for weight reduction and fuel economy improvement. Low cycle fatigue (LCF) behavior of these alloys is an important consideration for the structural applications. The objective of the present investigation was to identify influences of strain ratio and strain rate on cyclic deformation characteristics and fatigue life of an AZ31 extruded alloy. As the strain ratio decreased, stronger cyclic hardening rate, more asymmetric hysteresis loop, smaller stress amplitude, lower mean stress, and higher initial plastic strain amplitude were observed due to increasing compressive stresses. This was considered to be associated with the twinning during cyclic deformation in the compressive phase, and detwinning in the tensile phase. The residual twins acting as barriers to dislocation slip and pile-up were considered to be the main cause for the occurrence of cyclic hardening. Fatigue life increased with decreasing strain ratio and increasing strain rate. Fatigue crack initiation occurred at the specimen surface due to the presence of larger grains near the surface, and fatigue crack propagation was characterized by a mixture of striations and dimple-like ductile fracture features.