Low Machs Research Articles

Implications of person–situation interactions for Machiavellians' unethical tendencies: The buffering role of managerial ethical leadership

Machiavellianism is a dark personality trait that prompts self-interested manipulation in interpersonal relationships and is conducive to unethical behaviour. Yet Machiavellians (Machs) are also adaptive individuals who tailor their behaviour to the immediate context and feel constrained to manoeuvre selfishly in tightly (not loosely) structured work environments. Drawing on a person–situation interaction perspective, we analyse whether managerial ethical leadership buffers the negative influence of Mach on employees' ethical work intention. Using data from 436 employees of a diverse set of Spanish banking entities, we find that interactions with ethical leaders weaken employees' intention to behave unethically more among high Machs than among low Machs. This investigation sheds light on Machiavellianism in the workplace and explores some actions that can buffer its negative effects on employees' ethical intention.

Machiavelli as a poker mate — A naturalistic behavioural study on strategic deception

Machiavellianism has been considered in the literature as the symbol for manipulative strategies in social conduct. However, it has been rarely studied via behavioural experiments outside the laboratory, in more naturalistic settings. We report the first behavioural study (N=490) evaluating whether Machiavellian individuals, high Machs, deceive more than low Machs in online poker, where deception is ethically acceptable and strategically beneficial. Specifically, we evaluated Machiavellianism, bluffing patterns, and emotional sensitivity to getting “slow-played” (“stepping into a trap”). Bluffing was assessed by realistic poker tasks wherein participants made decisions to bluff or not, and sensitivity to slow-play by a self-report measure. We found that high Machs had higher average bluffsizes than low Machs (but not higher bluffing frequency) and were more distraught by getting slow-played. The Machiavellian sub-trait “desire for control” also positively predicted bluffing frequency. We show that online poker can be utilized to investigate the psychology of deception and Machiavellianism. The results also illustrate a conceptual link between unethical and ethical types of deception, as Machiavellianism is implicated in both.

Feelings and motives underlying Machiavellian behavioural strategies; narrative reports in a social dilemma situation.

This study explored the reasons and motives underlying the decisions of individuals with strong Machiavellian attitudes (High Machs). One hundred and fifty undergraduate students completed the Mach-IV test, and their contributions to, financial success in and narrative reports of a public goods game were analysed. High Machs contributed less to the public good and gained more benefit than Low Machs. Analysis of the narrative reports showed that High Machs used significantly fewer verbs referring to emotional involvement and first person plural verb forms, than did Low Machs. This study confirmed previous findings that High Machs have a cool and rational character and a proself orientation and showed that their lack of group orientation may account for their low cooperation in social dilemmas. The results of narrative content analysis provide a new perspective on the motives and values behind High Machs' decisions and success in different fields of social life.

Poster #T81 FREQUENCY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ATTENUATED PSYCHOSIS SYNDROME AND DELINEATION TO OTHER RISK PROFILES IN A SAMPLE OF HELP-SEEKING INDIVIDUALS

In the present experiment, we simultaneously examine the effect of personality and situational factors on decisions in a social dilemma game. Our first question is what temperament and character factors would make Machiavellian people successful in social interactions? The second question refers to situational factors: how does the composition of the group influence the Machiavellians’ decisions? Using Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI) scales, the scores on Mach IV test showed a positive correlation with Novelty Seeking and a negative correlation with Reward Dependence, Self-Directedness, Cooperativeness, and Self-Transcendence. We found that the Mach scores negatively correlated with the players’ contribution over the game, and positively with the total profit they gained by the end of the game. Regression analyses revealed that the contribution of high Mach persons (those who had relatively high scores on Mach scale) to the public good were primarily influenced by the number of altruists in the group, whereas low Machs’ decisions were influenced more by a temperament factor (Persistence). We assume that, compared to others, Machiavellians may be more sensitive to situational factors and take the behavior of their playmates into account to a greater degree, which may lead to their success in the exploitation of others.

Personality and situational factors differently influence high Mach and low Mach persons’ decisions in a social dilemma game

In the present experiment, we simultaneously examine the effect of personality and situational factors on decisions in a social dilemma game. Our first question is what temperament and character factors would make Machiavellian people successful in social interactions? The second question refers to situational factors: how does the composition of the group influence the Machiavellians’ decisions? Using Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI) scales, the scores on Mach IV test showed a positive correlation with Novelty Seeking and a negative correlation with Reward Dependence, Self-Directedness, Cooperativeness, and Self-Transcendence. We found that the Mach scores negatively correlated with the players’ contribution over the game, and positively with the total profit they gained by the end of the game. Regression analyses revealed that the contribution of high Mach persons (those who had relatively high scores on Mach scale) to the public good were primarily influenced by the number of altruists in the group, whereas low Machs’ decisions were influenced more by a temperament factor (Persistence). We assume that, compared to others, Machiavellians may be more sensitive to situational factors and take the behavior of their playmates into account to a greater degree, which may lead to their success in the exploitation of others.

Opportunistic claiming behaviour in two-sided markets

Consumer opportunistic behaviour has long drawn attention from both managers and scholars, but its special application to two-sided markets has been ignored. In this paper, we consider four primary factors that contribute to consumer opportunistic behaviour: individual personality (Machiavellianism); service guarantee policy; platform attitude and reference-group behaviour, following the ethical decision-making model (Ferrell and Gresham, 1985); and characteristics of two-sided markets. We obtained four findings. First, consumers with higher levels of Machiavellianism (High Machs) are more likely to engage in opportunistic claiming behaviour; second, reasonable compensation evokes a desire for unethical behaviour in consumers with lower levels of Machiavellianism (Low Machs), while reducing the likelihood of opportunistic claiming behaviour in High Machs. Moreover, platform attitude and reference group behaviour only have significant effects on Low Machs. Specifically, and third, platforms with tolerant attitudes are more likely to be confronted by opportunistic claims; fourth, a reference group's opportunistic behaviour misleads others into behaving similarly.

Machiavellian people’s success results from monitoring their partners

This study is aimed at exploring the decision making processes underlying the Machiavellians’ exploitation of others in a social dilemma situation. Participants (N=150) took part in a competitive version of public goods game (PGG), and filled out the Mach-IV and TCI test. Our results showed that high Mach people gained a higher amount of money by the end of the game, compared to low Machs. The regression analyses have revealed that Machiavellian persons were more sensitive to the signals of social context and took the behavior of their partners into consideration to a greater extent when making a decision than did non-Machiavellians. We discuss the Machiavellian players’ success in terms of personality and situational factors, and suggest that Machiavellian people may have certain cognitive and social skills that enable them to properly adapt to the challenges of environmental circumstances.

“Machiavellianism” and frontal dysfunction: Evidence from Parkinson's disease

Introduction. A number of reports have identified significant personality differences in patients with Parkinson's disease (PD) when compared with age-matched controls. We hypothesised that these differences may be related to impairment in prefrontal inhibitory functions resulting in the expression of new “Machiavellian” personality traits. Methods. Thirty-five patients with PD and 17 age-matched controls were assessed with a set of neuropsychologic, personality and mood tests as well as the Mach IV scale, which measures a set of “Machiavellian” personality characteristics. Results. PD patients with elevated Machiavellian traits (“high Machs”) were selectively impaired on tests of prefrontal function relative to “low Mach” patients. In addition, while high Machs did not differ from low Machs in terms of age, educational level, Hoehn-Yahr stage, mood function, or Mini Mental State Exam score, they indicated greater willingness to affiliate with a fictional Machiavellian character and scored significantly lower on the “cooperativeness” and “self-directedness” subscales of the Cloninger Temperament and Character Inventory. Conclusions. We suggest that (1) PD patients with frontal impairment are vulnerable to dramatic personality change, and (2) the frontal lobes are required for maintenance of prosocial personality traits.

On the manipulative behavior of low Machiavellians: Feigning incompetence to "sandbag" an opponent.

Three decades of research has revealed that people scoring high in Machiavellianism (high Machs) are manipulative and domineering. However, the domineering style of high Machs may preclude them from using manipulations that require a display of weakness. The authors examined whether Machiavellianism moderates the use of sandbagging-a manipulative strategy in which people display low ability to induce an opponent to reduce effort or lower his or her guard. In Experiment 1, participants (N = 198) reported that they would reduce effort in response to a disadvantaged opponent and anticipated that their opponent would behave similarly if they were disadvantaged. In Experiment 2 (N = 66), low Machs in competition sandbagged their opponent when they were uncertain that they could otherwise beat him. High Machs, in contrast, preferred a show of strength to a show of weakness, displaying high ability even when sandbagging might have been an advantageous strategy.

Norms and self-interest in ultimatum bargaining: The prince's prudence

While recent ultimatum bargaining research has made important progress in analyzing the role of bargaining context on rational choice under ultimatum conditions, the influence of political or social norms on bargainers' choice has received little attention. This paper uses an index of ‘Machiavellism’ to assess bargainers' propensity to engage in self-interest seeking with or without guile under two different types of ultimatum conditions. The results suggest that bargainers' norms about opportunism as well as the specific parameters of the bargaining situation affect recipient responses in the ultimatum bargaining scenario. Subjects with pronounced Machiavellian conceptions of reality are more likely to accept one-sided ultimatums when the bargaining conditions force a one-shot accept/reject decision (strong ultimatum conditions). This is not true for conditions of repeated play (weak ultimatum conditions) where both ‘high and low Machs’ resist exploitation by the allocator. The results' implications for the debate on opportunistic norm enactment are discussed.

An investigation of Machiavellianism and imagined interaction

The present study attempted to link social cognition and personality by investigating cognitive planning, or imagined interactions, related to Machiavellianism. Results indicated that high and low Machs differ significantly on three different dimensions identified by research on imagined interaction. These results suggest that, at least to some degree, the Machiavellian trait is correlated with certain types planning for communication in interpersonal situations.

Machiavellianism and Careers at Plateau

90 managers from a High-tech firm self-administered the Mach IV questionnaire. Analysis showed no significant difference between the more Machiavellian-oriented managers and their less Machiavellian peers on either of two dimensions. The High Machs were not promoted more often nor did they expect to be promoted more often than Low Machs in this study. Machiavellian tendencies were not related to ‘career plateauing.’

PERSONALITY CORRELATES OF MACHIAVELLIANISM: VI MACHIAVELLIANISM AND THE PSYCHOPATH

Previous studies have not demonstrated the hypothesized link between machiavellianism (interpersonally manipulative behavior) and psychopathy. In this research, Nigh Machs obtained significantly higher Psychopathy scores than Low Machs, and Mach V totals for Primary Psychopaths were significantly greater than those of Secondary Psychopaths. Both experiments suggest a relationship between Machiavellianism and primary psychopathy.

Cheating as a Function of Task Outcome and Machiavellianism

Abstract A study was conducted to investigate the effects of task motivation (approach or avoidance) and level of Machiavellianism on cheating. As predicted, high Machs were not generally more likely to cheat than low Machs. Both groups were more likely to cheat to avoid punishment than to attain reward. This tendency was significantly more pronounced for the high Machs.

Ethical Ideologies of the Machiavellian

Although Machiavellian individuals (Machs) have been characterized as lacking a concern for conventional standards of morality, it is clear from previous research that high Machs are not consistently more amoral or immoral than low Machs. A study was conducted to explore the ethical orientations of persons who score low versus high in Machiavellianism. The Mach V Scale and the Ethics Position Questionnaire were completed by 119 subjects. Results showed that Machiavellian subjects endorsed ethical positions that were more relativistic and less idealistic than subjects who scored low in Machiavellianism.

Relationships between Machiavellianism, Task Orientation and Team Effectiveness

In this study 115 graduate business students most of whom were men employed full time in technical-professional and management fields operated in 32 groups to compete in a management-simulation game. Group task orientation and Machiavellianism were significant predictors of the groups' effectiveness. Machiavellianism, task orientation, and their interaction accounted for 46% of the variance in the teams' effectiveness. Earlier studies found high Machs to be more successful than low Machs in face-to-face situations. This study extends the work on Machiavellianism in that the context offered little opportunity for meaningful face-to-face interaction among compering groups, yet groups scoring high in Machiavellianism made strategic and operating decisions which led to substantially more favorable outcomes.

Effects of Machiavellianism and communication on helping behaviour during an emergency

Studies relating Machiavellianism and helping behaviour have yielded contradictory data. The present experiment examined situational effects (subjects alone, in communicating triads, and in non‐communicating triads) on the helping behaviour of low and high Machs. While working on an apparent experimental task, university students heard a loud crash and cries for help coming from outside the experimental room. Low Machs helped significantly more often than high Machs, though the effect was mainly due to decreased helping by high Mach communicating triads. Contrary to previous helping behaviour research, face‐to‐face communication led to decreases in helping. Analysis of communication indicated that cue exchange was in fact more facilitated in non‐communicating groups, where ‘startle responses’ were more obvious. The results are discussed in terms of the social influence explanation of group size effects on helping. It is suggested that differences in low and high Mach communication patterns rather than differences in their sympathy for fellow human beings might account for the greater helping by low Machs. The need to explore the interaction of individual and situational factors in future research is stressed.

Some Sources of Behavioral Variance as Measured by an S-R Inventory of Machiavellianism

In this study a start is made with the construction of a Stimulus-Response Inventory of Machiavellianism (Mach S-R). The inventory was administered to students of a ‘Sociale Academie,’ who differed in age, sex, and degree of Machiavellianism. The Mach S-R used here consisted of nine descriptions of situations and six Machiavellian modes of response. The reliability-coefficients for the 9 descriptions ranged from ( a) 0.45 to 0.84, while the coefficients for the six modes of response ranged from ( a) 0.72 to 0.92. A three-way analysis of variance, i.e., persons by situations by modes of response, was computed, on which basis finally the proportion of the total variance accounted for by each component was calculated. Of the main effects the individual differences contributed over all data on the average about 17.7%, the situations about 2.3%, and the modes of response about 4.7% of the total variance. The interaction of persons by situations contributed on the average about 12.6%, whereas the interaction of persons by modes of response accounted for about 25.7% of the total variance, which is the highest percentage after the 36 9% for the ‘triple interaction’ and ‘error term.’ The interaction of situations by modes of response was so small it could be ignored altogether. Few differences existed between two age groups, i.e., between full-time students (average age 21 yr.) and part-time students (average age 33 yr.). Besides, these differences were probably associated with sex differences, which were rather more pronounced. The discrepancies between low and high Machs, furthermore, seemed to be about the same as those between the sexes. Continuation of the study of sex differences, of situations, and modes of response is encouraged.

Machiavellianism and deception.

Subjects who held a Machiavellian view of life, as measured by Christie's Mach Scales, were more convincing liars than non-Machiavellians. Sixty-four college students (high and low Mach men and women) were videotaped denying knowledge of a theft. Half had just been directly implicated in the theft; the other half made the same denial truthfully. A different group of 64 high and low Mach men and women college students viewed the 1.25-minute videotape clips in random sequence and judged the denials for veracity. The judgments were analyzed in an eight-factor, equal-n analysis of variance. The judges discriminated truth from lies accurately overall. As predicted, lying high Machs were more believed than lying low Machs. Also as predicted, high Machs were harder to judge. Lying high Machs were believed as much as truthful high Machs, but lying low Machs were less believed than truthful lows. People who hold a Machiavellian view of life are expected to be smooth liars. In ordinary parlance Machiavellianism is synonymous with the use of guile and deceit. Although Machiavelli did not advocate lying as a preferred policy, he assumed its necessity in an imperfect world. In fact he emphasized maintaining a public appearance of virtue while practicing whatever means were required to achieve one's ends. When the truth is unlikely to serve one's purpose, a lie is presented instead. Since Christie's (1970) development of the Mach Scale, a face-valid measure of agreement with Machiavelli, a number of studies have demonstrated that high scorers were more willing and able con artists than low scorers (Christie & Geis, 1970). But in contrast with the positive results for general manipulative skills, empirical demonstration of high Machs' hypothesized lying ability has been lacking. The first study using the Mach Scales in which objectively identifiable lying (by subjects) was observed was that of Exline, Thibaut, Hickey, and Gumpert (1970). After cheating with a partner when the experimenter was called out of the room, subjects were interrogated by the experimenter. Listening to audio tapes judges rated high Requests for reprints should be sent to Florence L. Geis, Department of Psychology, 220 Wolf Hall, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19711.

Machiavellianism and leadership.

The relevance of Machiavellian ism as a personality style for leadership was studied in the context of experimental task groups. The subjects were 84 male undergraduate students. The experimental design assigned 14 high Machiavellians (Machs) and 14 low Machs as leaders of task groups who constructed toy cube bridges under either a favorable or an unfavorable situation. In the favorable situation, the leader was presented to the group as technically qualified, and his authority was emphasized (high leader power). Task performance was evaluated according to a single criterion (structured task). In the unfavorable situation, the leader's qualities or special status were not emphasized (low power), and task performance was evaluated according to multiple criteria (unstructured task). No performance differences were found between high Mach and low Mach led groups. However, significant differences were observed with regard to group interactions. High Mach leaders gave more orders and were less involved in reducing tension. They were also less directive and requested more assistance when the situation was unfavorable, whereas the low Machs' behavior across situations remained unchanged. This study focused on the relevance of Machiavellianism as a personality style for leadership behavior. The concept of Machiavellianism, as introduced by Christie and Geis (1970), pertains to cognitive agreement with the basic ideas of Nicollo Machiavelli, for example, mistrust in human nature, lack of conventional morality, opportunism, and lack of affect in interpersonal relationships. People who scored highly on standard measures of Machiavellianism (high Machs) were found to have a strong tendency to manipulate other people (Geis & Christie, Note 1). In an experimental bargaining coalition game, high Machs manifested better sense of timing and adjusted their acts to current circumstances. They also appeared to initiate and control the structure of group interaction. High Machs manifested higher effectiveness under ambiguous, rather than clear, situations. They also were found to be detached from ego-involving elements in bar