Lower Levels Of Educational Attainment Research Articles

Do high childcare costs and low access to Head Start and childcare subsidies limit mothers’ employment? A state-level analysis

Access to affordable childcare is crucial to mothers’ employment. Yet, childcare costs and access to Head Start, childcare subsidies, and state-funded preschool vary dramatically across U.S. states. Using data from the 2016 American Community Survey five-year estimates, we apply hierarchical logistic regression models to show mothers are more likely to work in states with inexpensive childcare, higher Head Start enrollment and childcare subsidy participation, and increased availability of state-funded preschool. Childcare subsidy access is associated with higher maternal employment amongst those with lower levels of educational attainment, whereas state-funded preschool is associated with higher employment primarily among the college educated. Additionally, our analysis revealed that Head Start has a stronger association with maternal employment in states where childcare costs are high, reducing the negative relationship of employment with expensive childcare. As national discussions continue to center on the importance of childcare, our research adds evidence that public programs support maternal employment through reducing out-of-pocket childcare costs.

The Relationship between US Adults' Misconceptions about COVID-19 Vaccines and Vaccination Preferences.

While mass vaccination has blunted the pandemic in the United States, pockets of vaccine hesitancy remain. Through a nationally representative survey of 1027 adult Americans conducted in February 2021, this study examined individual misconceptions about COVID-19 vaccine safety; the demographic factors associated with these misconceptions; and the relationship between misconceptions and willingness to vaccinate. Misconceptions about vaccine safety were widespread. A sizeable minority (40%) believed that vaccine side effects are commonly severe or somewhat severe; 85% significantly underestimated the size and scale of the clinical trials; and a sizeable share believed either that the vaccines contain live coronavirus (10%) or were unsure (38%), a proxy for fears that vaccination itself may cause infection. These misconceptions were particularly acute among Republicans, Blacks, individuals with lower levels of educational attainment, and unvaccinated individuals. Perceived side effect severity and underestimating the size of the clinical trials were both significantly associated with vaccine hesitancy.

Health Beliefs and Preventive Behaviors Among Adults During the Early COVID-19 Pandemic in the United States: a Latent Class Analysis.

The objectives of this study are to (1) characterize patterns of preventive behaviors 3 months after the COVID-19 pandemic was declared a national emergency in the USA and (2) identify how health beliefs (e.g., perceived risk of infection, perceived risk of death upon infection, and perceived effectiveness of CDC-recommended preventive behaviors) and sociodemographic characteristics are associated with preventive behaviors. Data were obtained from two waves of the Understanding America Study (UAS) conducted in March (wave 1) and May to June of 2020 (wave 2) (n = 4445); UAS is a nationally representative panel of US adults. We conducted a latent class analysis (LCA) using wave 2 data to identify our outcome, patterns of 10 COVID-preventive behaviors (e.g., wearing a facemask, handwashing, social distancing), and then used a three-step regression (R3STEP) to test associations between the likelihood of class membership with (1) health beliefs and sociodemographic characteristics (age, sex, race/ethnicity, and educational attainment) in bivariate models and (2) health beliefs adjusted for sociodemographic characteristics in multivariate models. The LCA identified a three-class model of preventive behaviors characterized by high likelihood of engagement in the set of preventive behaviors (“high”), low likelihood of the preventive behaviors (“low”), or engagement in some behaviors (“mixed”). Respondents of older age (i.e., age 50 or older) and those with higher levels of educational attainment (i.e., a 4-year college degree or higher) were less likely to be in the low engagement versus the mixed engagement class compared to those who are younger (18–29) and have lower levels of educational attainment (i.e., high school), respectively. Women (compared to men) and respondents who were Black and/or Hispanic/Latinx (compared to White) were more likely to be in the high (vs. mixed) engagement class. In separate models adjusted for sociodemographic characteristics, respondents with a high perceived risk of infection, high perceived risk of death, and high perceived effectiveness of COVID-preventive behaviors were statistically significantly less likely to be in the low engagement relative to the mixed engagement class. Engagement in COVID-preventive behaviors varies by sociodemographic characteristics (i.e., age, sex, race/ethnicity and educational attainment) and health beliefs (i.e., perceived risk of infection, perceived risk of death, and perceived effectiveness of CDC-recommended behaviors). Our findings highlight the potential utility of using health beliefs to inform targeted prevention efforts to help reduce the spread of COVID-19 and future pandemics.

Adolescent mental health difficulties and educational attainment: findings from the UK household longitudinal study

ObjectiveThis study examines whether there is an independent association between mental difficulties in adolescence and educational attainment at age 16.DesignLongitudinal study.SettingNationally representative data from the UK Household Longitudinal Study (UKHLS)...

P-134 Social determinants of health are risk factors for early onset colorectal cancer in Appalachia

The Appalachian mountain range encompasses 420 counties and parallels the eastern seaboard of the United States (US). This region is characterized as being predominantly rural with poverty rates that exceed the national average. Recently, areas in southern and central Appalachia were identified as geographical hot-spots for EOCRC mortality in men. The purpose of this investigation is to describe the relationship between social determinants of health, including educational attainment, poverty, income, unemployment, and access to cancer screening, and the incidence of EOCRC in Appalachia. This is a retrospective cohort analysis of the National Cancer Institutes’ Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) program. 4,724 patients age 20-49 who were diagnosed with colorectal cancer in Appalachia from 2000-2016 met inclusion criteria and were analyzed. 105 of the 420 Appalachian counties designated by the Appalachian Regional Commission were represented in this study. County-level incidence of EOCRC was calculated (n=105) and the counties in the top (n=25) and bottom (n=27) quartiles for incidence of EOCRC were separated into two cohorts for comparison. County characteristics reported by the American Community Survey from 2012-2016 Census and the National Health Interview Survey (2008-2011) were compared between the cohorts. Appalachian counties above the top quartile for EOCRC incidence were found to have significantly lower levels of educational attainment with significant differences seen at all cutoffs (< 9th grade, < high school, < bachelor’s degree). Appalachian counties above the 75th percentile for EOCRC also have a significantly higher unemployment rates and greater levels of poverty defined as percentage of the population living under 200% of the federal poverty level. Moreover, county-level median household income was found to be inversely related to county incidence of EOCRC. Appalachian counties above the 75th percentile incidence of EOCRC have significantly higher percentage of residents who identify as current smokers or ever smokers. Furthermore, EOCRC incidence in Appalachia inversely correlated with utilization of health screens. Specifically, the top quartile for EOCRC incidence had significantly lower rates of endoscopy use and CRC testing for screening-aged adults. While it is known that social determinants of health play a key role in colorectal cancer morbidity, mortality, and survival, this study shows that social determinants of health are also risk factors for the incidence of EOCRC. We hypothesize that counties with poor social determinants of health (high poverty rates, low educational obtainment, and decreased access to preventative healthcare) may also have higher rates of independent risk factors for EOCRC such as obesity and processed meat consumption. Interestingly, this study demonstrates that EOCRC incidence inversely corelated with county utilization of CRC testing for screening age adults. These results provide data to strongly support public health initiatives in Appalachia aimed at improving these social determinants of health at a county-level. We further hypothesize that tobacco use, processed meat consumption, obesity, and limited access to primary care are some of the likely many factors driving the increased incidence of EOCRC in Appalachia and therefore provide targets for future interventions at the regional level.

How variation in internet access, digital skills, and media use are related to rural student outcomes: GPA, SAT, and educational aspirations

Some have pointed to divides in the availability of fixed home broadband Internet access as a contributor to rural students’ lower levels of educational attainment. Based on standardized exams (SAT Suite) and a survey of rural Michigan students in grades 8–11, we find that rural students with broadband home Internet access are more interested in school and leave homework incomplete less often. However, the relationship to classroom grades (GPA) is relatively trivial. Yet, we find that students who are not dependent on a cell phone for Internet access and those with higher digital skills, especially social media skills, rank considerably higher on the SAT. Rural students with broadband Internet access are able to participate in a more diverse array of online media activities, which supports building digital skills. Any negative relationship between time spent on social media, video games, other digital media and educational outcomes is outweighed by the benefit to digital skills. However, aspects of rural culture; including the emphasis on activities such as sports, as a path to postsecondary schooling and upward, social mobility; may be stunting the positive relationship between access, digital skills, and educational aspirations. Whereas extra-curricular sports have no direct relationship to SAT performance, students who spend more time on sports receive higher grades and have higher educational aspirations than those with more digital skills. We discuss the implications for rural students’ access to human capital and how the unequal relationship between digital skills and performance in the classroom and on the SAT may perpetuate inequalities.

Uneven Distribution of Socio-economic Status and Housing Outcomes in Depopulating Towns of Rural Korea

In the wake of demographic cliff, this research is a longitudinal study that examines socio-economic status and housing outcomes of households in depopulating towns of Jeolla and Gyeonngbuk Provinces, and figures out factors affecting their residential assessment. After 1,213 households were selected from two waves of Korea Welfare Panel Study, the statistical analysis revealed that most of the households were elderly couples headed by men aged over 70 with lower level of educational attainment, and owned a small-sized single-family-home with 3 bedrooms. Not surprisingly, the number of single elderly women between old-old and oldest-old age groups sharply increased, especially in Gyeonngbuk Province. where a sizable number of either substandard housing or houses with structural problems were identified, lowering housing satisfaction. While a vast majority of households suffered from digital isolation, a growing of number of households relied on social services, particularly cash transfer such as social security and medicaid. Further, the regression analysis indicated that overall satisfaction with rural settlement was largely influenced by satisfaction with housing and residential environment in its entirety. Thus, this research implies that since depopulating towns are mainly small and physically islolated, digital inclusion helps elderly residents to stay connected and adequately get in-home services.

Exploring the first experiences of computer programming of older people with low levels of formal education: A participant observational case study

Computer programming is widely regarded as a key skill in the 21st century. Yet, and despite a growing aging population and interest in promoting computer programming for all, research on this topic with older people (60+) is scant in the Human-Computer Interaction literature. This paper presents a qualitative case study aimed to explore the first experiences of computer programming of a group of older active computer users with low levels of educational attainment (i.e., primary school / K-12). Over a 6-month period, we provided a hands-on introduction to several textual and visual programming languages and environments to (N = 29) older and adult people in three courses in an adult educational center. We reveal and explain relevant factors that shape, and help us understand, the participants’ computer programming learning experiences, including their motivations, difficulties, and identity, along with strategies that hindered and fostered empowerment. Implications for research and design are discussed.

Analysis of Factors Responsible for Preoperative Anxiety in Patients during the COVID-19 Pandemic at the Surgical Polyclinic of Sanglah General Hospital, Denpasar

Surgery often causes anxiety in patients. Preoperative anxiety may cause delays of surgery due to physiological and psychological changes experienced by the patient. Preoperative anxiety is influenced by age, gender, education level, physical condition, and experience. The research objective was to analyze the influence of factors responsible for preoperative anxiety in patients at the Surgical Polyclinic of Sanglah General Hospital, Denpasar, during the COVID-19 pandemic. This research applied cross sectional design with 98 respondents who were selected by consecutive sampling method. Data were collected using the APAIS. Bivariate data analysis was performed using non-parametric Pearson’s chi-squared test and multivariate analysis with logistic regression. All patients experienced preoperative anxiety, most of which were in the moderate category (41.8%). Factors responsible for preoperative anxiety in patients at the Surgical Polyclinic of Sanglah General Hospital, Denpasar, during the COVID-19 pandemic were gender (p = 0.043, α = 0.05), education (p = 0.000, α = 0.05), and experience (p = 0.006, α = 0.05). The most dominant factor was experience with an odds ratio of 4.806. The influence of the three factors was 75.4% and the remaining 24.6% was influenced by other factors. Most respondents expressed their anxiety with fear and curiosity about surgical procedure so it is important for nurses to provide education about the surgery in order to reduce the level of preoperative anxiety in patients, especially female patients with lower levels of educational attainment who have never undergone surgery.

Paid maternal leave is associated with better language and socioemotional outcomes during toddlerhood.

The United States is the only high-income country that does not have a national policy mandating paid leave to working women who give birth. Increased rates of maternal employment post-birth call for greater understanding of the effects of family leave on infant development. This study examined the links between paid leave and toddler language, cognitive, and socioemotional outcomes (24-36months; N=328). Results indicate that paid leave was associated with better language outcomes, regardless of socioeconomic status. Additionally, paid leave was correlated with fewer infant behavior problems for mothers with lower levels of educational attainment. Expanding access to policies that support families in need, like paid family leave, may aid in reducing socioeconomic disparities in infant development.

Age-specific prevalence and predictors of tobacco consumption among male adults in India: subnational inequality and associated risk factors

This study aimed to identify regional inequalities in the prevalence and comparison of the correlates of tobacco consumption among male Indian adults across age cohorts. Associations between explanatory variables and the prevalence of tobacco consumption are determined using bivariate and multivariable binary logistic regression analyses. This study utilizes information from 112,122 male adults collected through the cross-sectional and population-based National Family Health Survey in India conducted in 2015–2016. Tobacco consumption prevalence was higher among older men from the North-east region (72.6%, confidence interval [CI]: 70.4%–74.8%) and relatively lower among younger men from the South region (8.3%, CI: 7.5%–9.3%). A significant association between educational attainment and tobacco consumption was observed in middle-aged men. For the model fitted to the respondents of this age group, compared to more highly educated males, those with secondary, primary and no institutional education were 1.21 (odds ratio [OR]: 2.21; CI: 2.03–2.42), 3.01 (OR: 4.01; CI: 3.53–4.55) and 2.63 (OR: 3.63; CI: 3.16–4.17) times as likely to consume tobacco, respectively. Among respondents aged 15–19 years, those involved in physical labour were 3.31 (OR: 4.31; CI: 3.66–5.07) times as likely to consume tobacco as those not engaged in paid work. The research recommends designing dynamic interventional programmes to replace uniformly implemented tobacco control measures adopted in contemporary India. Special interventions are suggested for high-risk target groups, including for the North-east region, for those with lower levels of educational attainment, those from schedule caste background and younger males involved in physical paid work. Tobacco control measures in India are usually framed and implemented for the national population as a whole and without much focus on socio-economic inequalities and regional disparities. This study adds value to the growing body of literature through identifying the inequalities in the prevalence and correlates of tobacco consumption across the country’s geographically distributed regions and among the male respondents across the age cohorts.

Retinal microvascular parameters are not significantly associated with mild cognitive impairment in the Northern Ireland Cohort for the Longitudinal Study of Ageing

BackgroundThe retinal and cerebral microvasculature share similar embryological origins and physiological characteristics. Improved imaging technologies provide opportunistic non-invasive assessment of retinal microvascular parameters (RMPs) against cognitive outcomes. We evaluated baseline measures for associations between RMPs and mild cognitive impairment (MCI) from participants of the Northern Ireland Cohort for the Longitudinal Study of Ageing (NICOLA).MethodsRMPs (central retinal arteriolar / venular equivalents, arteriole to venular ratio, fractal dimension and tortuosity) were measured from optic disc centred fundus images and analysed using semi-automated software. Associations between RMPs and MCI were assessed by multivariable logistic regression with adjustment for potential confounders including age, sex, alcohol consumption, smoking status, educational attainment, physical activity, cardiovascular disease (CVD), hypertension, mean arterial blood pressure, triglycerides, diabetes, body mass index, and high density lipoprotein levels. P < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.ResultsData were available for 1431 participants, of which 156 (10.9%) were classified with MCI defined by a Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) score ≤ 26, with subjective cognitive decline, in the absence of depression or problems with activities of daily living. Participants had a mean age of 62.4 ± 8.5 yrs. and 52% were female. As expected, individuals with MCI had a lower MoCA score than those without (23.5 ± 2.6 versus 26.3 ± 2.7, respectively), were more likely to be female, have a lower level of educational attainment, be less physically active, more likely to have CVD, have higher levels of triglycerides and lower levels of high density lipoprotein. No significant associations between RMPs and MCI were detected in unadjusted, minimally adjusted or fully adjusted regression models or subsequent sensitivity analyses.ConclusionPrevious studies have reported both increased retinal venular calibre and reduced fractal dimension in association with mild cognitive impairment. Our study failed to detect any associations between RMPs and those individuals at an early stage of cognitive loss in an older community-based cohort.

Early-life exposure to parental mental distress and adulthood depression among middle-aged and elderly Chinese

Although mental illness among the middle-aged and the elderly has become a global public health issue and there is a burgeoning interest in the intergenerational transmission of mental health concerns in recent years, the long-term impact of parental mental health problems on child mental health conditions in developing countries remains unknown. Using the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS), which provides both contemporaneous and retrospective data collected from a nationally representative sample of Chinese residents aged 45 years and above, this study employed a multilevel modeling approach to investigate the association between early-life exposure to parental mental distress and adulthood depression among the middle-aged and elderly Chinese. Our study showed that childhood parental mental health problems predicted mid- and late-life depression in Chinese contexts and the result remained robust to a suite of robustness checks. Our exploration of potential pathways of the relationship found the following adversities that were associated with the exposure to parental mental distress in early life and may have contributed to the depression among the middle-aged and elderly: higher rates of childhood physical abuse by parents, poor childhood health, lower levels of educational attainment, poor physical health and individual economic status in adulthood. Further, our heterogeneity analysis indicated that the transmission effect was stronger for the elderly than the middle-aged and that the improvement of childhood SES mitigated the intergenerational transmission. We also found that childhood parental mental distress was potentially a moderator, which inhibited the recovery from depression. The findings will inform the design, implementation, and evaluation of relevant public health policies. It highlights the need for more efforts to prevent and mitigate the profound impacts of childhood parental mental distress on the late-life well-being of child generations.

Impact of a Culturally Tailored Education Intervention for African-American and Appalachian Men in Ohio

Men, particularly those of underserved groups, bear a disproportionate cancer burden. Knowledge about cancer and screening is associated with adherence to screening guidelines. However it is possible that a correlation exists between an individual’s education attainment and ability to gain knowledge from health education. Men were recruited from Ohio counties with significant cancer disparities and asked to participate in three education sessions. Measures included a baseline survey collecting demographic information and pre- and post-intervention knowledge assessments about each of the topics. Paired t tests were used to determine whether there were statistically significant changes in mean scores after the intervention. Repeated measures of variance (ANOVA) conducted through generalized linear models (GLM) were used to determine if scores varied significantly by educational attainment. Appalachian men, regardless of level of educational attainment, had significant increases in knowledge for all topics. African American men with at least some college education demonstrated significant increases in knowledge for all three topics, while those with no college education had significant increases for only two topics. College education had a significant effect on scores for one topic among the Appalachian men and all three topics among the African American men. The interaction between change in score and higher educational attainment was significant for only one topic among Appalachian men and no topics among African American men. Higher educational attainment was associated with greater increases in knowledge scores for only one topic among Appalachian men and no topics among African American men. Culturally tailored health educational interventions are a promising approach to reducing disparities in cancer screening and outcomes among men of underserved groups. While all groups demonstrated increases in mean knowledge scores after participating in the educational intervention, there was not a significant association between educational attainment and increases in knowledge scores. Future research is needed to explore additional approaches to delivering health education and increasing the knowledge of men with lower levels of educational attainment.

Analysis of the Living Conditions at eZakheleni Informal Settlement of Durban: Implications for Community Revitalization in South Africa

This study investigated the living conditions of the eZakheleni informal settlement, Durban metropolis of Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa. The utilized data were collected with the use of a well-structured questionnaire through a multistage sampling of 255 households. The descriptive results indicated low levels of educational attainment, large number of female headed households, high unemployment rates, inadequate sources of income, poor security and low government intervention programmes. The results of inferential analysis indicate that factors such as water accessibility, toilet accessibility, years of working experience, food security status, educational status and access to good health were the significant factors that were key to improving the living conditions of the residents in the study area. The study therefore concluded that education, basic housing services (water accessibility, toilet accessibility), food security, working experience, social connectivity and health are key contributors to households’ living condition in the study area and recommended several future research and policy directions which could improve the living conditions of the informal settlement.

Educational Meaning Making and Language Learning: Understanding the Educational Incorporation of Unaccompanied, Undocumented Latinx Youth Workers in the United States

Immigration scholars agree that educational attainment is essential for the success of immigrant youth in U.S. society and functions as a key indicator of how youth will fare in their transition into adulthood. Research warns of downward or stagnant mobility for people with lower levels of educational attainment. Yet much existing research takes for granted that immigrant youth have access to a normative parent-led household, K–12 schools, and community resources. Drawing on four years of ethnographic observations and interviews with undocumented Latinx young adults (ages 18 to 31) who arrived in Los Angeles, California, as unaccompanied youth, I examine the educational meaning making and language learning of Latinx individuals coming of age as workers without parents and legal status. Findings show that Latinx immigrant youth growing up outside of Western-normative parent-led households and K–12 schools and who remain tied to left-behind families across transnational geographies tend to equate education with English language learning. Education—as English language learning—is essential to sobrevivencia, or survival, during their transition to young adulthood as workers and transnational community participants.

Epidemiology of COVID-19 vs. influenza: Differential failure of COVID-19 mitigation among Hispanics, Cook County Health, Illinois.

During the early phases of the COVID-19 pandemic in the U.S., African-American or Hispanic communities were disproportionately impacted. To better understand the epidemiology and relative effects of COVID-19 among hospitalized Hispanic patients, we compared individual and census-tract level characteristics of patients diagnosed with COVID-19 to those diagnosed with influenza, another viral infection with respiratory transmission. We evaluated temporal changes in epidemiology related to a shelter-in-place mandate. We evaluated patients hospitalized at Cook County Health, the safety-net health system for the Chicago metropolitan area. Among self-identified hospitalized Hispanic patients, we compared those with influenza (2019-2020 season) to COVID-19 infection during March 16, 2020-May 11, 2020. We used multivariable analysis to identify differences in individual and census-tract level characteristics between the two groups. Relative to non-Hispanic blacks and whites, COVID-19 rapidly increased among Hispanics during promotion of social-distancing policies. Whereas non-Hispanic blacks were more likely to be hospitalized for influenza, Hispanic patients predominated among COVID-19 infections (40% relative increase compared to influenza). In the comparative analysis of influenza and COVID-19, Hispanic patients with COVID-19 were more likely to reside in census tracts with higher proportions of residents with the following characteristics: Hispanic; no high school diploma; non-US citizen; limited English speaking ability; employed in manufacturing or construction; and overcrowding. By multivariable analysis, Hispanic patients hospitalized with COVID-19 compared to those with influenza were more likely to be male (adjusted OR = 1.8; 95% CI 1.1 to 2.9), obese (aOR = 2.5; 95% CI 1.5 to 4.2), or reside in a census tract with ≥40% of residents without a high-school diploma (aOR = 2.5; 95% CI 1.3 to 4.8). The rapid and disproportionate increase in COVID-19 hospitalizations among Hispanics after the shelter-in-place mandate indicates that public health strategies were inadequate in protecting this population-in particular, for those residing in neighborhoods with lower levels of educational attainment.

The influence of gender and family educational background on leisure satisfaction among Spanish adolescents

ABSTRACT This article examines the impact of gender and family educational background on the leisure satisfaction of Spanish secondary school-age students (12-16 years). The research design consisted of a quantitative study in the form of a questionnaire (the reduced version of Beard and Ragheb’s (1980) Leisure Satisfaction Scale), which was completed by a sample of 1887 secondary school students in Galicia (Spain). The results indicate a moderate level of satisfaction with leisure activities among the teenagers surveyed, with significant variations observed in relation to gender and parental educational level. Girls from families with a low level of educational attainment were found to be more likely to pass up leisure opportunities than boys, revealing a double gap (educational and gender-based) with regard to leisure satisfaction and a greater risk of precarious leisure. Future research in this area should focus on the development of Leisure Education programmes for children and adolescents.

The Effects of COVID-19 Lockdown on Bodyweight Status and Lifestyle Behaviors Among US Adults: Evidence from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System 2018-2020

The COVID-19 pandemic and its associated policies may impact body weight in a variety of ways. Using data from the 2018-2020 waves of the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS), we estimate the COVID-19 pandemic’s effect on Body Mass Index and the probability of obesity for adults in the United States. Using a difference-in-differences framework which relies on the plausibly exogenous timing of COVID-19 lockdown as an indicator of when individuals’ lives were first affected by the pandemic, we find statistically significant associations between the introduction of initial lockdown and body weight gain. Event study results suggest that adults experience a temporary decrease in body weight following the first month of lockdown and an increase in body weight as time since initial lockdown increases. We find larger effects for men but more persistent effects for women, as well as greater and more persistent effects for non-white adults, less-educated adults, and adults living in more densely populated states. Analyzing potential mechanisms driving the observed increase in body weight, we find evidence of potential changes in diets and sedentary behaviors following initial lockdown based on increased Google search intensity for terms related to food delivery, high calorie foods, and video streaming platforms.

The Relative Importance of Female Education on Fertility Desires in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Multi-Level Analysis

Scholars suggest that in high fertility settings where there is high wanted fertility, lowering the desired family size is a necessary precondition for fertility declines. Though accumulated evidence has linked socio-economic developments to changes in fertility desires, little efforts have taken to disentangle the relative importance of key socio- economic determinants such as education, income, and area of residence in a multi-level context. Combining individual and community-level data from Demographic and Health Surveys of 34 African countries to aggregate level indicators, we have quantified and compared the relative role of female education on fertility desire at the individual, community, and country levels. Results show that at the individual level, female education has a stronger effect compared to household wealth, and area of residence. The high levels of reported desired family size in the rural parts of SSA are mainly a consequence of their relatively lower levels of educational attainment compared to their urban counterparts. At the community level, the relative impact of female education is even more striking. The simulation results revealed that moving the most economically disadvantaged and illiterate woman from a low educated to a high-educated community would reduce her desired family size by about 20 percent. On the other hand, lifting the same woman from the poorest to the wealthiest community would reduce her family size desire only by 6 percent. Our findings are robust to alternative measures of fertility preferences. This study, thus, confirmed the findings of previous studies that have looked at the relationship and causal link between actual fertility and women’s level of educational attainment.