Low Levels Of Social Capital Research Articles

The effects of community social capital on school performance: A spatial approach

The influence of social capital on economic activities has been a central theme in the literature for quite a long time, but the relationship between social connectedness and school choice has not been addressed. If the primary objective of social capital is to create cohesiveness through the connectivity of community members, then it is clear that parents’ school choice decisions are influenced by the groups or organizations to which they belong. Ni (2007) argues that parents’ decisions not only influence students’ academic performance, but also affect school expenditures. Thus, it is worthwhile to investigate the effect of social capital on school performance. The measurement of social capital has been debated for a long time. In this paper we create a geographically bounded community around schools in Mississippi employing GIS instead of following the commonly used political boundaries such as school district or county to measure social capital. Then we estimate the social capital stock for each school to analyze the relationship between the school's performance and existing social capital. Data were collected from the Northeast Regional Center for Rural Development (NRCRD) and the Mississippi Department of Education for the academic year 2005–2006. We find that schools located in communities with a higher stock of social capital significantly outperform those with relatively low levels of social capital. The results also suggest that students’ race and socio-economic status significantly reduce primary school performance, holding all else equal. This research helps to understand the importance of social capital from spatial perspectives and will guide policy makers in future resource allocations.

Social capital between farmers of Iran

Social capital can potentially be used for wrong reasons such as criminal activities, self interests and the creation of unequal communities. In this regard, the issue of developing communities raises concern because social capital has not sufficiently been researched and documented in rural areas of the developing world. The purpose of this study was the assessment of social capital between rural farmers in Behbahan County in Iran and identified effective factors on it. For access to this purpose, 20 variables that measured social capital by questionnaire were used. 205 farmers were selected by systematic sampling between 7314 Behbahan farmers. This sample was selected from 38 villages by random sampling method from 150 villages of the county. Results of this study showed that majority of the farmers have a low level of social capital. According to the result, there are positive correlation between farmers’ literacy, family cost, off-farm income, extension participatory, human capital, financial capital, physical capital and social capital between farmers. Also there are negative significant relationships between social capital indicators with variables such as; farmer’s age, family size, experience in agricultural activities and agrarian land. Regression results showed that the six variables as human capital, participatory extension, agrarian land, off- farm income, family cost, and physical capital entered into the equation model and these variables explained 56.7% of the variance of the social capital indicator among the farmers. Key words: Social capital, farmers, indicator, normality test, Behbahan County, Iran.

INDIVIDUALISM-COLLECTIVISM AND SOCIAL CAPITAL AT THE INDIVIDUAL LEVEL

1. Introduction The concept of social capital is currently one of trendiest terms in social and behavioral sciences. It has been widely used in disciplines as diverse as sociology, economics, political science, and psychology for about last twenty years (Halpern 2005, Realo and Allik 2009). Many believe that social capital is much sought answer to question of what it is in a community that brings people together for common purposes, a question much older than social sciences themselves. The concept first drew wider attention when Pierre Bourdieu and James Coleman adopted it independently from one another for theoretical explanations of their empirical findings. Bourdieu (1985) defined social capital as the sum total of resources, actual or virtual, that accrue to an individual (or a group) by virtue of being enmeshed in a durable network of more or less institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition (p. 248). Coleman (1988) claimed that social capital facilitates certain actions of individuals within social structure. Since then, social capital has been treated in two ways in literature and research: both as an individual asset and as a feature of communities and nations. Originally, both Pierre Bourdieu and James Coleman focused on individuals (or small groups) as unit of analysis. The concept of social capital was later extended to level of larger groups by Robert Putnam (Portes 2000). In Putnam's interpretation, it became an attribute of communities and nations. In Bowling Alone, which quickly made social capital one of most frequently cited concepts in social sciences, Robert Putnam (2000) claims that basis of social capital is that social networks are valuable. After all, collective action strongly depends upon social networks and trustworthiness of fellow citizens. Cooperation and coordination for mutual benefit are facilitated by reciprocity and trust. Despite fact that exact meaning of social capital is still widely debated, it seems that most authors agree that social trust or trustworthiness constitutes core of social capital (Paxton 2002, Portes 1998). According to Paxton (1999), social capital involves at least two important components: objective associations between individuals (i.e. individuals are tied to each other in social life) and a subjective form of association (the ties between individuals must be trustworthy and reciprocal). For Putnam (2000), too, social capital refers to connections among individuals--social networks and norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from them (p. 19). Social capital is considered important in many regards, as higher levels of social capital have been associated with many desirable outcomes, such as faster social and economic development, greater effectiveness of political systems, and better health (for a review, see Portes 1998). At same time, low levels of social capital may have much less desirable consequences. And, like all other forms of capital, social capital is, unfortunately, not evenly distributed. Putnam (2002) has argued that, given that it has accumulated most among those who need it least, social capital may, in fact, conceivably be even less equitably distributed than financial and human capital. The results of international research show this to be case (Cox 2002, Offe and Fuchs 2002, Skockpol 2002, Wuthnow 2002). Indeed, previous research has shown that social capital at individual level is dependent on many socioeconomic factors, such as age, gender, education, and income (for a review, see Kaasa and Parts 2007), indicating that many acquired as well as attributed properties of individuals may affect quality of social capital at their disposal. Most importantly, however, Putnam (2000) alerted us to fact that, in most Western countries, many national-level indicators of social capital have shown signs of decline over past few decades. …

Integrating Social Capital Into a Park-Use and Active-Living Framework

Parks have been proposed as a feature of the built environment that may promote increased physical activity. Little, if any, research has investigated the role of the park social environment in promoting physical activity within parks, however. To examine whether social capital is a collective feature of the park environment and whether it is associated with park use and park-based physical activity. Adult park users (n=222) were surveyed in 27 neighborhood parks in New Orleans LA in July-August 2008. Direct observation methods were used to count the numbers and activity levels of all park users in these parks on weekdays during the hours of 4:00-7:00(PM). Multilevel linear regression models were used to calculate the intraclass correlation (ICC), which measures the variation in perceived social capital attributable to differences among parks and to test whether park use and physical activity outcomes differed between parks with high versus low levels of social capital. Analyses were conducted in 2009-2010. In study parks, 27% of perceived social capital was attributable to differences among parks (ICC=0.27). Parks with higher levels of social capital had higher daily numbers of observed park users (42.5 vs 12.1, p=0.0044) and had more energy expended within the park (3200.3 vs 721.2 MET-minutes across all park users, p=0.0087). Interventions to improve park social environments should be conducted to determine if they promote increased physical activity among park users.

Diversity of Communities and Economic Development: An Overview

This paper reviews the literature on the impact of ethnic diversity on economic development. Ethnically polarized societies are less likely to agree on the provision of public goods and more likely to engage in rent seeking activities providing lower levels of social capital. Initial conditions are important determinants of adverse development outcomes. The role of decentralization, democracy and markets as potential remedies are discussed. The paper then presents a number of preliminary hypotheses on the relationship between diversity and instability in order to stimulate future research.

Social capital and economic performance: trust and distrust in eighteenth-century gold shipments from Brazil

This article discusses agency problems in a period of market boom. It takes Portuguese trade with Brazil as a case study to discussthe impact of colonial market expansion on social capital. The hypothesis is that social capital depletion prompted an uneven distribution of information and a limited access to honest individuals, who might afford a premium to certain forms of agency. Given the states’ inability to provide legal sanctioning in colonial regions, this article focuses on private-order mechanisms which were effective for selecting reputable individuals. The exploration of network analysis identifies the mechanism that responds to such an adverse environment and supports the argument that business organizations which counted on the geographical mobility ofagents had comparative advantages. The approach followed in this article brings new insights on informal institutional arrangements and on itinerancy in contexts of low levels of social capital.

Social Capital in Rural Areas in Poland the Case of the Świętokrzyskie Province

Abstract The study tackles the issue of the spatial distribution of social capital in Polish rural areas, using the example of the Świętokrzyskie province. R. Putnam’s theory was adopted as to social capital referring to social networks and the norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from them. A synthetic indicator of the quality of social capital was developed, which included 4 components: civic and religious engagement, reciprocity, honesty, trust and local press readership. The research was conducted mainly on the basis of unpublished data. Gminas (municipalities) with a high, an average and a low level of social capital were identified. The highest level of social capital was recorded in highly urbanised gminas with a favourable demographic structure. An average level of social capital was characteristic of typical agricultural gminas. A low level of social capital was recorded in areas with well developed industrial functions. The farmers employed at industrial plants in addition to working on their own farms, which was a prevailing practice in the time of the centrally planned economy, had a largely adverse impact on the weakening of bridging capital, and in recent years the population has not been capable to develop bonding capital as yet.

Does Social Capital Act as a Buffer Against HIV Risk Among Migrant Men in Sub-Saharan Africa?

The 2007 World Bank data on HIV/AIDS for sub-Saharan Africa indicates that 22.5 million adults and children over 15 are living with HIV, including 1.7 million new infections. AIDS killed approximately 2.3 million people in the same year, making this region by far the worst affected by the HIV/AIDS epidemic. This paper proposes a macro-level model for understanding the spread of disease within the context of migration. We use social capital theory to generate a framework for exploring how migration might serve as a conduit for the disease transmission. Specifically, we investigated male migrants in the Republic of Angola and argued that a migrant laborer's movement away from his village diminishes his social capital in terms of social support, norms, and networks while stresses from migration could prove to be conducive to the spread of the HIV virus. We use univariate, bivariate, and multivariate analyses to explore the relationship between migration and HIV risk while considering social capital as the intervening factor. Social capital is conceptualized as a combination of social engagement, social support, and person-to-person contact. To this end, this study analyzes secondary data collected on a sample of migrants in Angola. Two hypotheses are tested: Migrants have lower social capital than nonmigrants and lower levels of social capital are related to higher risky behaviors. Results indicate that migrants have a lower level of social capital and migrants with lower social capital tended to have higher risky behavior.

On the Relationship between Social Capital and Individualism–Collectivism

AbstractBoth social capital and individualism–collectivism (IC) have been, and still are, popular and well‐researched constructs in social sciences. Many theorists have argued that individualism poses a threat to social cohesion and communal association. Other researchers believe that growth of individuality, autonomy, and self‐sufficiency are necessary conditions for the development of social solidarity and cooperation. The present article reviews the studies on the relationship between social capital and IC, using different data and different measures. We conclude that countries with higher level of social capital (where people believe that most people can be trusted) are also more individualistic, emphasizing the importance of independence, personal accomplishments, and freedom to choose one’s own goals. In societies where trust is limited to the nuclear family or kinship alone, people have lower levels of social capital. Social capital increases as the radius of trust widens to encompass a larger number of people and social networks, bridging the ‘gap’ between the family and state.

Social Capital and Community Heterogeneity

Recent findings indicate that more pronounced community heterogeneity is associated with lower levels of social capital. These studies, however, concentrate on specific aspects in which people differ (such as income inequality or ethnic diversity). In the present paper, we introduce the number of parties in the local party system as a more encompassing measure of community heterogeneity. This builds on the argument that the number of relevant socio-economic cleavages in the population (i.e. heterogeneity) determines the level of party system fragmentation. Using data on 307 Flemish municipalities, we find that municipalities with a more heterogeneous population indeed have lower levels of social capital. Hence, our study endorses—and generalizes—previous results linking community heterogeneity to lower levels of social capital.

A prospective study of individual-level social capital and major depression in the United States

Study objective:To investigate prospectively the associations between depression and cognitive social capital (social trust, sense of belonging, mutual aid) and structural social capital (volunteer work and community participation).Methods:This was a...

Radius of Trust

Countries in which people believe that “most people can be trusted” and where citizens belong to a larger number of different voluntary associations are more individualistic, emphasizing the importance of independence and freedom to choose one's own goals. The present study examines the relationship between social capital and individualism/collectivism using a measure that distinguishes between familism and institutional collectivism. Familism correlated negatively with social capital, whereas institutional collectivism practices exhibited positive associations with social capital, especially with trust and participation in voluntary organizations such as church or religious organizations and labor unions. It is concluded that in societies where trust is limited to the nuclear family or kinship alone, people have lower levels of social capital. Social capital increases as the radius of trust widens to encompass a larger number of people and social networks among whom norms of generalized reciprocity are operative.

Social Capital and Neighborhood Poverty

ABSTRACT Research indicates that concentrated neighborhood poverty has numerous detrimental effects on the health and well-being of individuals, families, and communities. The term “neighborhood effects” has been used to describe the interaction between socioeconomic disadvantage and social problems at the neighborhood level. Social capital theory, defined broadly as social networks characterized by trust and reciprocity represents one prominent explanation for the phenomenon of neighborhood effects. Within poor neighborhoods, it is theorized that socioeconomic characteristics of the neighborhood foster inadequate social capital and it is this low level of social capital that leads to the phenomenon of neighborhood effects. In order to explore the utility of social capital theory in explaining neighborhood effects, this paper argues for an ecologically-grounded model of social capital that allows for the different ways in which social capital operates within different types of neighborhoods. Implications for social work practice, policy and education are discussed.

Dealing With Misbehavior at Schools in Kentucky

To test and compare theoretical explanations of the use of corporal punishment in school, the authors examine how well county-level measures of culture, socioeconomic strain, and social capital predict the prevalence and incidence of corporal punishment in Kentucky schools. Although several variables are significantly correlated with corporal punishment use, multi-variate regression analyses reveal that high socioeconomic strain and low levels of social capital are the best predictors of (a) the prevalence of corporal punishment in a county's public school system(s) and (b) a high incidence of corporal punishment in those counties where it is practiced. Explanations and practical implications of these findings are discussed.

Neighborhood Matters: Racial Socialization of African American Children

Differences in racial socialization practices and their effects were examined in a sample of 241 African American 1st graders (average age 6.59 years) living in an urban area. Child outcomes included cognitive development, receptive language skills, and child problem behavior. The cultural environment of the home was associated with higher cognitive scores for boys living in high negative social climate and low social capital neighborhoods and for girls living in high social capital neighborhoods. The positive association of promotion of mistrust and child behavior problems was magnified in neighborhoods that had low levels of social capital. A high negative social climate in the neighborhood attenuated the positive association between preparation for bias/promotion of mistrust and externalizing problems.

Sociaal kapitaal in heterogene gemeenten: een studie naar de relatie tussen een heterogene bevolkingssamen-stelling en het sociaal kapitaal in Vlaamse gemeenten

A growing body of research alludes to the beneficial effects of social capital on political, social and economic performance. This naturally provokes the question what factors promote (or block) the emergence of this constructive force. In this paper, we focus on the link between community heterogeneity (measured by both diversity in income levels and nationalities) and social capital using an extensive dataset of macro-level variables for 307 Flemish municipalities. Our results show that, after controlling for various socio-economic characteristics of the municipality, income inequality is not significantly correlated with the municipality’s level of social capital. However, we do find a significant negative relation between the level of social capital and the number of nationalities within a municipality. In accordance with previous international findings, municipalities with large groups of differing nationalities among its citizenry are confronted with lower levels of social capital.

Social capital, economic growth and regional development

Iyer S., Kitson M. and Toh B. (2005) Social capital, economic growth and regional development, Regional Studies 39 , 1015–1040. This paper examines the relationships between social capital, economic performance and regional development, and it stresses the complexity and variability across space of such relationships. In contrast to the conventional macroeconomic approach of using indicators of social capital in formal growth models, what is required is a more nuanced analysis that evaluates the impact of social capital by region. To support this argument, the paper examines social capital data from the Social Capital Community Benchmark Survey 2000, which provides social capital data for more than 24 000 individuals living in 40 communities, grouped into nine regions, in the USA. These data show remarkable diversity of social capital by region. Multivariate analysis is used to examine the impact of economic and social determinants of social capital and shows that education is important for nearly all indicators of social capital, and that ethnic diversity is associated with lower levels of social capital. Furthermore, analysis indicates the need to distinguish between local and non‐local forms of social capital. The paper concludes by suggesting that future analysis of social capital will benefit from a more region‐specific approach towards examining its development and impacts.

Social capital: An individual or collective resource for health?

Although it is now widely acknowledged that the social environment plays an important role in people's health and well-being, there is considerable disagreement about whether social capital is a collective attribute of communities or societies, or whether its beneficial properties are associated with individuals and their social relationships. Using data from the European Social Survey (22 countries, N=42,358), this study suggests that, rather than having a contextual influence on health, the beneficial properties of social capital can be found at the individual level. Individual levels of social trust and civic participation were strongly associated with self-rated health. At the same time, the aggregate social trust and civic participation variables at the national level were not related to people's subjective health after controlling for compositional differences in socio-demographics. Despite the absence of a main contextual effect, the current study found a more complex cross-level interaction for social capital. Trusting and socially active individuals more often report good or very good health in countries with high levels of social capital than individuals with lower levels of trust and civic participation, but are less likely to do so in countries with low levels of social capital. This suggests that social capital does not uniformly benefit individuals living in the same community or society.

Investments in social capital—implications of social interactions for the production of health

This paper develops a theoretical model of the family as producer of health- and social capital. There are both direct and indirect returns on the production and accumulation of health- and social capital. Direct returns (the consumption motives) result since health and social capital both enhance individual welfare per se. Indirect returns (the investment motives) result since health capital increases the amount of productive time, and social capital improves the efficiency of the production technology used for producing health capital. The main prediction of the theoretical model is that the amount of social capital is positively related to the level of health; individuals with high levels of social capital are healthier than individuals with lower levels of social capital, ceteris paribus. An empirical model is estimated, using a set of individual panel data from three different time periods in Sweden. We find that social capital is positively related to the level of health capital, which supports the theoretical model. Further, we find that the level of social capital (1) declines with age, (2) is lower for those married or cohabiting, and (3) is lower for men than for women.

Firearm Prevalence and Social Capital

PURPOSE: Previous studies have shown a correlation between measures of social capital and morbidity, mortality, and violent crime. This article examines the association across U.S. states between social capital (as measured by mutual trust and civic engagement) and firearm availability. METHODS: The analysis uses OLS to determine degrees of association across U.S. states. Measures of mutual trust come from responses to questions on the U.S. General Social Survey that “you can't be too careful in dealing with people,” and most people “would try to take advantage of you.” Measures of formal civic engagement come from responses to Lifestyle Survey questions concerning times volunteered, club meetings attended, community projects worked on, and church services attended. Informal civic engagement measures come from responses to number of times bowled, played cards, entertained at home, and gave or attended dinner parties, and number of greeting cards sent. The Lifestyle Survey also asked whether respondent believed whether “most people are honest.” The percentage of suicides from firearms, and the average percentage of suicides and homicides from firearms, are used as proxies for state firearm ownership rates. Control variables are the degree of urbanization, the rates of poverty, and the percentage of nonwhites in the state. RESULTS: Across the U.S. states, higher levels of firearm ownership are associated with significantly lower levels of mutual trust and civic engagement. CONCLUSION: While the analysis cannot show causation, states with heavily armed civilians are also states with low levels of social capital.