Lower-level Athletes Research Articles

Different visual stimuli affect muscle activation at the knee during sidestepping

ABSTRACTIncreasing knee stability via appropriate muscle activation could reduce anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury risk during unplanned sidestepping. High-level athletes may activate their knee muscles differently from low-level athletes when responding to quasi-game realistic versus non game-realistic stimuli. Eleven high-level and 10 low-level soccer players responded to a non game-realistic arrow-planned condition (AP), a quasi game-realistic one-defender scenario (1DS) and two-defender scenario (2DS), and an arrow-unplanned condition (AUNP), that imposed increasing time constraints to sidestep. Activation from eight knee muscles during sidestepping was measured during pre-contact and weight-acceptance. Knee flexor-extensor co-activation ratios were established. Muscle activation levels increased by approximately 27% solely in the 1DS in both sidestepping phases. In the 2DS, the shift from a flexor dominant co-activation strategy in pre-contact toward extensor dominance in weight-acceptance commenced earlier for the high-level players. Quasi game-realistic information allowed for anticipatory increases in knee muscle activation regardless of expertise levels but only when the time demands to respond were low (1DS). High-level players were better at interpreting complex game-realistic information (2DS) to activate their knee extensors earlier in preparation for single-leg landing during weight-acceptance.

Bioimpedance Vector Analysis of Elite, Subelite, and Low-Level Male Volleyball Players.

To establish a specific player profile on body-composition parameters and to provide a data set of bioelectric impedances values for male volleyball players. The study included 201 athletes (age 26.1 [5.4]y, height 191.9 [9.7]cm, weight 86.8 [10.8]kg) registered in the Italian volleyball divisions. The athletes were divided into 3 groups: The elite group comprised 75 players participating in the 1st (Super Lega) division, the subelite group included 65 athletes performing in the 2nd (Serie A2) division, and the low-level group included 61 players participating in the 3rd (Serie B) division. Bioelectric impedance, body weight, and height of the athletes were measured in the second half of the competitive season. In addition, bioelectrical impedance vector analysis was performed. The elite group showed a greater amount of fat-free mass (FFM) and total body water (TBW) and a lower fat mass (FM) than the subelite group (P < .05). In addition, the elite players were taller and heavier and had a higher FFM, FM, TBW, and body cellular mass than the low-level athletes (P < .05). Finally, the mean impedance vectors of the elite group significantly differed from those measured in the normal population and in the other 2 groups (P < .05). This study provides an original data set of body-composition and bioelectric impedance reference values of elite male volleyball players. The results might be useful for interpretation of individual bioimpedance vectors and for defining target regions for volleyball players.

Clinical Outcomes of Osteochondral Allograft Transplantation for Secondary Treatment of Osteochondritis Dissecans of the Knee in Skeletally Mature Patients

To report clinical outcomes of osteochondral allograft transplantation (OCA) for skeletally mature patients with osteochondritis dissecans (OCD) lesions of the knee in whom prior surgical intervention has failed, and to describe return-to-sport (RTS) rates and any predictive demographic or preoperative variables associated with a higher likelihood to RTS. Patients who underwent OCA by a single surgeon (B.J.C.) between October 1, 2002, and November 30, 2014, for a diagnosis of OCD with a minimum of 2years' follow-up were included. Demographic, surgical history, operative, and postoperative data points including RTS were analyzed for all patients collectively, with subanalysis to identify any demographic and operative variables associated with the ability to RTS. Failure was defined as revision OCA, gross appearance of graft failure on second-look arthroscopy, or conversion to arthroplasty. We identified 41 consecutive patients (43 knees), with 37 patients (39 knees, comprising 26 male and 13 female knees) available for clinical follow-up at an average of 7.29 ± 3.30years. There was significant improvement (P < .05) in all patient-reported outcome scores, with the exception of the Short Form 12 mental subscale (P= .910). Most patients (81.6%) reported being either mostly satisfied or completely satisfied at final follow-up. Of patients self-identifying as athletes preoperatively (n= 22), 18 (81.8%) achieved RTS at an average of 14.0 ± 8.7months. Athletes with failure to RTS had a significantly greater body mass index (RTS, 24.68 ± 3.67; no RTS, 27.82 ± 0.69; P= .005). Subsequent surgery was performed in 14 patients (35.9%), and primary OCA failed in 2 patients at an average of 6.2 ± 3.8years. OCA is a successful secondary surgical treatment for OCD of the knee in skeletally mature patients and leads to clinically meaningful improvements in patient-reported outcome scores and high patient satisfaction and RTS rates in low-level athletes at an average of 7.29years' follow-up. Athletes with failure to RTS were found to have a significantly higher body mass index. Although reoperation may be common after OCA (35.9%), the failure rate is low (5.1%) in this series. Level IV, case series.

Neuromuscular Adaptations to Multimodal Injury Prevention Programs in Youth Sports: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials.

Objective: Neuromuscular injury prevention programs (IPP) can reduce injury rate by about 40% in youth sport. Multimodal IPP include, for instance, balance, strength, power, and agility exercises. Our systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to evaluate the effects of multimodal IPP on neuromuscular performance in youth sports.Methods: We conducted a systematic literature search including selected search terms related to youth sports, injury prevention, and neuromuscular performance. Inclusion criteria were: (i) the study was a (cluster-)randomized controlled trial (RCT), and (ii) investigated healthy participants, up to 20 years of age and involved in organized sport, (iii) an intervention arm performing a multimodal IPP was compared to a control arm following a common training regime, and (iv) neuromuscular performance parameters (e.g., balance, power, strength, sprint) were assessed. Furthermore, we evaluated IPP effects on sport-specific skills.Results: Fourteen RCTs (comprising 704 participants) were analyzed. Eight studies included only males, and five only females. Seventy-one percent of all studies investigated soccer players with basketball, field hockey, futsal, Gaelic football, and hurling being the remaining sports. The average age of the participants ranged from 10 years up to 19 years and the level of play from recreational to professional. Intervention durations ranged from 4 weeks to 4.5 months with a total of 12 to 57 training sessions. We observed a small overall effect in favor of IPP for balance/stability (Hedges' g = 0.37; 95%CI 0.17, 0.58), leg power (g = 0.22; 95%CI 0.07, 0.38), and isokinetic hamstring and quadriceps strength as well as hamstrings-to-quadriceps ratio (g = 0.38; 95%CI 0.21, 0.55). We found a large overall effect for sprint abilities (g = 0.80; 95%CI 0.50, 1.09) and sport-specific skills (g = 0.83; 95%CI 0.34, 1.32). Subgroup analyses revealed larger effects in high-level (g = 0.34–1.18) compared to low-level athletes (g = 0.22–0.75), in boys (g = 0.27–1.02) compared to girls (g = 0.09–0.38), in older (g = 0.32–1.16) compared to younger athletes (g = 0.18–0.51), and in studies with high (g = 0.35–1.16) compared to low (g = 0.12–0.38) overall number of training sessions.Conclusion: Multimodal IPP beneficially affect neuromuscular performance. These improvements may substantiate the preventative efficacy of IPP and may support the wide-spread implementation and dissemination of IPP. The study has been a priori registered in PROSPERO (CRD42016053407).

Talent development programmes: a retrospective analysis of the age and support services for talented athletes in 15 nations

ABSTRACTResearch question: Due to increasing competition, national governing bodies (NGBs) are put under pressure to deliver collective success and develop talent programmes for their athletes at an increasingly young age. This paper seeks to make a contribution to the talent development literature from an organisational perspective. It addresses the following research question: How and at what age have athletes received support services as upcoming talent from their sport clubs and NGBs?Research methods: A total of 2041 elite athletes from 15 nations and 37 different sports were surveyed. Analysis of variance (ANCOVA and MANCOVA) was used to examine the data and identify differences between sports, countries and athletes’ sporting achievement levels.Results and findings: The data revealed that athletes received club or NGB support at a relatively late age. This differed by gender, by sport and between sports in which athletes specialise at younger or older ages. Athletes with higher achievement levels (e.g. in the world’s top eight) were slightly younger when they received support services compared with lower level athletes (e.g. national level); however, effect sizes are small. Most elite athletes received a variety of support services and only slight differences were found according to athletes’ achievement levels.Implications: The relevance of these findings relates to the role that sports clubs (can) play in the total development of an athletic career. This paper has practical implications for the management of talent development by NGBs and clubs, national sport associations and for coach education.

Video Processing for Barycenter Trajectory Identification in Diving

The aim of this paper is to show a procedure for identify the barycentre of a diver by means of video processing. This procedure is aimed to introduce quantitative analysis tools and diving performance measurement and therefore in diving training. Sport performance analysis is a trend that is growing exponentially for all level athletes: it has been applied extensively in some sports such as cycling. Sport performance analysis has been applied mainly for high level athletes; in order to be used also for middle or low level athletes the proposed technique has to be flexible and low cost. Video processing is suitable to fulfil both these requirements. In diving, the first analysis that has to be done is the barycentre trajectory tracking.

Weight loss practices in Taekwondo athletes of different competitive levels.

This study investigated the prevalence, magnitude, and methods of rap-id weight loss among male and female Taekwondo athletes from all competitive levels. A questionnaire was administered to 72 men (regional/state level, n=31; national/international level, n=41) and 44 women (regional/state level, n=9; national/international, n=35). Among the male athletes, 77.4% of the regional/state level and 75.6% of the national/international athletes declared to have reduced weight to compete in lighter weight categories. Among women, 88.9% of regional/state level and 88.6% of national/international level reported the use of rapid weight loss strategies. Athletes reported to usually lose ~3% of their body weight, with some athletes reaching ~7% of their body weight. The methods used to achieve weight loss are potentially dangerous to health and no difference between sexes was found. Four methods were more frequently used by men athletes in higher competitive levels as compared to lower levels, as follows: skipping meals (Z=2.28, P=0.023, η2=0.21), fasting (Z=2.337, P=0.019, η2=0.22), restricting fluids (Z=2.633, P=0.009, η2=0.24) and spitting (Z=2.363, P=0.018, η2=0.22). Taekwondo athletes lost ~3% of their body mass, using methods potentially dangerous for their health. Although no difference was found between sexes, lower level athletes more frequently used methods such as skipping meals, fasting, restricting fluids and spitting. Considering that these health-threating methods are more commonly used by lower level athletes, specific education programs should be directed to them.

Is it possible to create a thermal model of warm-up? Monitoring of the training process in athletic decathlon

The aim of the present study was to define if the athletes may vary their warm-up according to the specific demands of event they are preparing for and that higher-level athletes may differ in their thermal responses than lower-level athletes. Ten top level Polish male decathletes (19.9±3.0yr, 187.9±4.7cm, 82.7±6.7kg) who participated in the study were examined with a thermographic camera. Thermal imaging of each athlete was undertaken three times: at rest before the warm-up began, immediately after the general warm-up, and immediately after the specific warm-up.As significant changes in skin surface temperatures were observed between rest and both general and specific warm-ups (p<0.001) it seems that athletes are able to vary their warm-up according to the decathlon event. Moving from rest to the general warm-up was characterized by decrease of the body surface temperature within the decathletes as a cohort. Interestingly, correlation was found between decathlon result measured by points and decrease of temperatures after commencing the general or specific warm-up exercises (r=0.62; p<0.05). However, the higher-performing competitors were characterized by a higher variability of skin temperatures depending on the event being prepared for.The present findings suggest that in sporting competitions characterized by the need for specificity of warm-up of different muscular segments, thermal imaging can be useful observe thermoregulatory responses. Due to these observed individual thermal reactions to the physical effort of warm-up, the present findings suggest it is possible to individually adapt the warm-up to the needs of both the event being prepared for and the level of athlete.

大学新入生の熱中症発生頻度：体育系学部新入生と一般学部新入生の比較

Purpose: Guidelines for prevention of exertional heat illness issued by academic societies and the Japan Sports Association have been well structured. Although these guidelines have been widely disseminated, the numbers of adolescents suffering heat illness during sports activities is still a concern. Many freshman enrolled in Sports Science-related Departments (SSD) are presumably high-level athletes who engage in high-intensity and/or long-duration exercise during daily practice, and could thus be categorized as a group at high risk of exertional heat illness (EHI). Conversely, the majority of freshman enrolled in non-Sports Science-related Departments (non-SSD) are presumably low-level athletes who might be engaged in comparatively less high-intensity and/or short-duration exercise during daily practice, and could thus be categorized as a group at low risk of EHI. Although sports activities are known to increase the risk of EHI, no evidence is available to suggest whether high-level sports activities increase the risk of EHI. The purpose of the present study was to clarify the prevalence of EHI in SSD and non-SSD freshman. Methods: Four hundred eighty students from SSD and 447 students from non-SSD participated in a self-assessed survey designed to clarify the prevalence of EHI experienced by individuals during the period from elementary school to high school age. Chi-squared and post-hoc residual analysis, and odds ratio (OR), were used to compare differences between the groups. Results: Completed survey questionnaires were received from 480 SSD students and 447 non-SSD students. The prevalence of heat illness was 31.9% in the SSD group and 16.8% in the non-SSD group [adjusted OR 2.342, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.712, 3.204]. The number of times individuals had experienced heat illness in the past differed between the SSD and non-SSD groups, but the response ratio was similar. More than 85% of students in both groups who had suffered heat illness in the past had done so during club activities at junior high school and high school. The ratio of students who reported ever suffering from heat illness during sports club activities at junior high school and/or high school (n=860) was 25.6%, whereas 13.4% of students reported that they had never participated in junior high school and/or high school sports club activities during the same period (n=67). Conclusion: The present study revealed that high-level athletes (SSD freshman) had experienced EHI twice as often as non-SSD students. In addition, students who had participated in sports club activities at junior high school and/or high school had suffered EHI twice as often as students who had not participated in sports club activities. Coaches and athletes should take more care to prevent EHI during sports and/or physical activities, and when it occurs, steps should be taken to prevent progression to exertional heat stroke.

An Anthropometric and Physical Profile of Young Swiss Alpine Skiers Between 2004 and 2011

To describe the development of anthropometric and physical characteristics of young Swiss alpine skiers between 2004 and 2011, to compare them between age and performance-level groups, and to identify age- and sex-dependent reference values for the tests performed. The Swiss-Ski Power Test includes anthropometric measures and physical tests for coordination and speed, strength, anaerobic capacity, and endurance. The authors analyzed the results of 8176 tests performed by 1579 male and 1109 female alpine skiers between 2004 and 2011. Subjects ranged between regional and national level of performance and were grouped according to their competition age groups (U12, 11 y; U14, 12-13 y; U16, 14-15 y; U18, 16-17 y; U21, 18-20 y) and performance level. A progressive increase in anthropometric measures and improvements in tests results with increasing age were found. For all tests, male athletes had better results than female athletes. Minor differences were observed in anthropometric characteristics between 2004 and 2011 (mostly <5%), while results of physical and coordinative tests showed significant improvements (up to more than 50% enhancement) or stability over the years. Differences between higher- and lower-level athletes were more pronounced in tests for lower-limb strength and anaerobic capacity. The presented profile of young Swiss alpine skiers highlights the improvements in different physical aspects along the maturation process and chronologically over a period of 7 y. Furthermore, reference values are provided for comparisons with alpine skiers or athletes from other sports.

A Systematic Review of the Relationship between Physical Activities in Sports or Daily Life and Postural Sway in Upright Stance

In many sports, maintaining balance is necessary to compete at a high level. Also, in many health problems, balance is impaired. Postural sway (PS) is often used as an indicator of upright balance control, and physical activity (PA) might enhance balance control. However, the relationship between PS and PA has never been systematically reviewed. Our objective was to summarize the evidence regarding the relationship between PS in upright bipedal and unipedal standing and PA. We conducted a literature search in MEDLINE, EmBase, CINAHL, the Cochrane Database, and PEDro, up to March 2012, with no limit on the starting date. Characteristics and methodological aspects of each article were extracted by two reviewers. We used centre of pressure (CoP) velocity, and variables related to the CoP area, to compare studies. A total of 39 articles were reviewed from an initial yield of 2,058. Of these 39 studies, 37 used a comparative design, one was a cohort study, and one was a randomized controlled trial. The main conclusion was that in general, sport practitioners sway less than controls, and high-level athletes sway less than low-level athletes. Additionally, we identified specific effects dependent on the use of vision, sport-specific postures, and frequency and duration of the (sports) activity. PS in unperturbed bipedal stance appears to have limited sensitivity to detect subtle differences between groups of healthy people.

A Review of Synthetic Playing Surfaces, the Shoe-Surface Interface, and Lower Extremity Injuries in Athletes

The evolution of synthetic playing surfaces began in the 1960s and has had an impact on field use, shoe-surface dynamics, and the incidence of sports-related injuries. Modern third-generation turfs are being installed in recreational facilities and professional stadiums worldwide. Currently, > two-thirds of National Football League teams,> 100 National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I football teams, and > 1000 high schools in the United States have installed synthetic playing surfaces. Those in favor of such playing surfaces note their unique combination of versatility and durability; they can be used in both ideal and inclement weather conditions. However, the more widespread installation and use of these surfaces have raised questions and concerns regarding the impact of artificial turf on the type and severity of sports-related injuries. There appears to be no question that the shoe-surface interface has a significant impact on such injuries. Independent variables such as weather conditions, contact versus noncontact sport, shoe design, and field wear complicate many of the results reported in the literature, thereby preventing an accurate assessment of the true risk(s) associated with certain shoe-surface combinations. Historically, studies suggest that artificial turf is associated with a higher incidence of injury. Furthermore, reliable biomechanical data suggest that both the torque and strain experienced by lower extremity joints generated by artificial surfaces may be more than those generated by natural grass fields. Recent data from the National Football League support this theory and suggest that elite athletes may sustain more injuries, even when playing on the newer artificial surfaces. By contrast, some reports based on data collected from lower-level athletes suggest that artificial turf may protect against injury. This review discusses the history of artificial surfaces, the biomechanics of the shoe-surface interface, and some common turf-related lower extremity injuries.

Characterization of the Differences in Strength and Power Between Different Levels of Competition in Rugby Union Athletes

Levels of strength and power have been used to effectively discriminate between different levels of competition; however, there is limited literature in rugby union athletes. To assess the difference in strength and power between levels of competition, 112 rugby union players, including 43 professionals, 19 semiprofessionals, 32 academy level, and 18 high school level athletes, were assessed for bench press and box squat strength, and bench throw, and jump squat power. High school athletes were not assessed for jump squat power. Raw data along with data normalized to body mass with a derived power exponent were log transformed and analyzed. With the exception of box squat and bench press strength between professional and semiprofessional athletes, higher level athletes produced greater absolute and relative strength and power outputs than did lower level athletes (4-51%; small to very large effect sizes). Lower level athletes should strive to attain greater levels of strength and power in an attempt to reach or to be physically prepared for the next level of competition. Furthermore, the ability to produce high levels of power, rather than strength, may be a better determinate of playing ability between professional and semiprofessional athletes.

Match-Related Fatigue in Soccer Players

Soccer induces neuromuscular fatigue requiring several hours of recovery. The study aimed to determine the extent to which neuromuscular fatigue occurs in high-level professional players and its recovery after a match and to examine its relationship with central and peripheral fatigue indicators. Maximal voluntary contraction (MVC), sprint and passing abilities, muscle soreness, maximal voluntary activation, EMG activity, and evocated quadriceps contractile properties (using different electrical stimulations) were determined before, immediately after, and at 24 and 48 h after the match in 20 male professional players. Immediately after a 90-min game, fatigue was evident by a reduction of MVC and sprint performance (-11%, P < 0.001 and -3%, P < 0.001, respectively) and increased muscle soreness (P < 0.001) compared with baseline, whereas short-passing ability was preserved. At the same time point, maximal voluntary activation and EMG activity were reduced by 8% (P < 0.001) and 12% (P = 0.001), respectively. M-wave characteristics were unchanged, whereas quadriceps mechanical responses to single and paired stimulations at 10 Hz resulted as significantly reduced (peak torque = -8%, P < 0.001 and -9%, P < 0.001). Despite the observation of a partial recovery 24 h after the game, all variables did not return to baseline values until 48 h after the match. In high-level professional players, the fatigue induced by a soccer match occurs to a smaller extent than in lower level athletes and seems to be recovered in a faster fashion. Match-related fatigue is determined by a combination of central and peripheral factors. A relationship exists between central fatigue indicators and MVC and sprint performance decrements, whereas muscle soreness seems to be linked to peripheral fatigue indicators, particularly to mechanical responses at low-frequency stimulations.

An investigation of the five-factor model of personality and coping behaviour in sport

Coping strategies are important for performance in sport and individual differences may contribute to the coping strategies adopted by athletes. In this study, we explored the main and interactive effects of the big five personality dimensions on sport-related coping and compared personality profiles of discrete groups of athletes. Altogether, 253 athletes (mean age 21.1 years, s = 3.7) completed the NEO-FFI (Costa & McCrae, 1992), and the Coping Function Questionnaire for Sport (Kowalski & Crocker, 2001). Results showed that extraverted athletes, who were also emotionally stable and open to new experiences (a three-way interaction effect), reported a greater use of problem-focused coping strategies. Conscientious athletes (main effect), and athletes displaying high levels of extraversion, openness, and agreeableness (a three-way interaction effect), reported a greater use of emotion-focused coping strategies, and athletes with low levels of openness, or high levels of neuroticism (main effects), reported a greater use of avoidance coping strategies. Different personality characteristics were observed between higher-level and lower-level athletes, between men and women athletes, and between individual and team sport athletes. These findings suggest that the five-factor model of personality can help distinguish various levels of athletic involvement and can help identify the coping strategies athletes are likely to adopt during participation.

Velocity and Stride Parameters of World-Class 400-Meter Athletes Compared With Less Experienced Runners

The purpose of this study was to determine, based on the time course of the velocity and stride pattern recorded in each 50-m segment of a 400-m competition, whether elite 400-m runners present the same pacing strategy as less successful athletes. Based on video data, 3 different levels of performance were analyzed: world-class, national, and regional levels for both sexes, with each of the 6 groups comprising 5 subjects. The peak velocity was reached by all athletes between the 50- and 100-m marks with mean values of 8.96 and 10.12 m.s for the 5 best women and men, respectively. Peak frequencies were observed in the second and third 50-m segments; peak values were 3.99 +/- 0.13 for the world-class women (WWC) and 4.12 +/- 0.19 for the men (MWC). A stride length of 2.29 +/- 0.04 was observed for the WWC and 2.53 +/- 0.08 for the MWC. The better athletes were able to achieve higher absolute and relative velocities (97.6 +/- 0.5 [MWC] and 96.3 +/- 0.7% [WWC] of their best performance for 200 m) at the 200-m mark compared with the lower-level athletes. Furthermore, the fatigue index was calculated as 22.99, 14.43, and 13.91% for the world-class, national, and regional levels, respectively. In summary, world-class runners adopt a more aggressive pacing strategy and demonstrate greater fatigue than the less experienced runners; this might indicate a greater mental commitment and/or a better capacity to run under fatigue.

Maturational Rate of Female Soccer Players

Previous reports suggest that across sports elite athletes attain menarche later, on average, than lower-level athletes and non-athletes. Little data exists concerning the age of menarche in female soccer players. PURPOSE The purpose of the present study was to compare age at menarche in female soccer players across competitive levels. METHODS Subjects included female soccer players of club (U-15 and U-18, n=38, mean age 16.2 ± 0.2 yrs), college (Division I, n=12, mean age 20.6 ± 0.3 yrs; Division II, n=26, mean age 22.5 ± 0.5 yrs; Division III, n=17, mean age 20.7 ± 0.7 yrs), and the U-21 U.S. national team (n=11, mean age 20.9 ± 0.2 yrs). Age at menarche and playing history were collected retrospectively by a previously validated questionnaire. In addition self-reported height and weight were recorded. All data is reported as mean ± SEM. Differences between groups were determined using one-way analysis of variance at p≤0.05. Post hoc comparisons between group means were made using Tukey HSD. RESULTS Age at menarche for the Club teams, Division I, Division II, Division III and U-21 U.S. national team were 12.5 ± 0.4, 13.0 ± 0.7, 14.0 ± 0.3, 13.5 ± 0.4 and 14.5 ± 0.7 years respectively. Age at menarche was significantly different between the club teams and U-21 U.S. national team (p≤0.05). In addition, age at menarche in the Division II team was significantly different from the club teams (p≤0.05). Age at menarche did not differ between the college teams, nor did age at menarche differ between the college teams and the U-21 U.S. national team. There was no difference in the age subjects began participating in sports across competitive levels. CONCLUSIONS Age at menarche was the latest in the U-21 U.S. National team and earliest in the club team members. These results are similar to those reported previously in other sports. It appears that in the female soccer players as competitive level is increased age at menarche occurs later.

Pacing Strategy and Performance in Elite World Cup Triathlon

0832 Elite triathletes may attain eligibility for selection for the Olympic Games triathlon through their performance in the “International Triathlon Union” (ITU) World Cup triathlon series. These races involve completion of a swimming stage followed by a “draft legal” cycle and a final running stage over the Olympic distance (OD) (1.5- km swimming, 40-km cycling and 10-km running). In the cycle stage, athletes are allowed to cycle in a sheltered position (drafting) – this may result in specific demands and tactical strategies not observed in non elite triathlon events. However, little is understood about the pacing strategies employed by elite triathletes in each stage of the race. PURPOSE: To compare the performance of the top and lower level triathletes in the swimming, cycling and running stage of an elite “draft legal” ITU World Cup OD triathlon. METHODS: 24 male athletes who were grouped into the top 50% (n = 12) and bottom 50% (n = 12) of the population recruited from starters in the race. Swimming velocity (m.s−1), cycling speed (kph) and running velocity (m.s−1) were measured at regular intervals throughout the race using a global positioning system (GPS). The actual rank after each stage and overall was obtained from the race results. RESULTS: The top 50% competitors overall in the triathlon completed the first 500m of the swim stage significantly (p<0.05) faster than the lower level athletes. The position of the top 50% athletes after the swim stage was also significantly (p<0.01) lower (6.3 ± 3.5 vs 19.7 ± 5.5). There were no significant differences in actual race position after the cycle stage (10.7 ± 6.5 vs 14.8 ± 10.2). However, the slower swimmers cycled at a significantly (p<0.01) higher speed (38.5 ± 0.2 vs 39.2 ± 0.7) at 13.1-km in the cycle stage. There was also a significant correlation (r = 0.60;p<0.01) between position after the swim and cycle speed at 13.1-km. Furthermore, the position in the running stage was highly correlated (r = 0.49:p<0.05) with overall race result. CONCLUSION: After the swimming stage of an elite triathlon race, the lower level athletes were required to “catch up” in the early stages of the cycle stage. At the same time, it is likely that inferior swimming performance results in a tactic that involves greater work in the initial stages of cycle stage affecting subsequent running and overall triathlon performance.

Perceptions of Athletic Injuries by Athletes, Coaches, and Medical Professionals

35 athletes, their coaches, and medical professionals independently assessed the disruption, seriousness, and short-term effects of the athletes' athletic injuries. Athletes underestimated the disruption and short-term effects of the injury when compared to medical professionals. 25 lower level athletes and those with no previous serious athletic injury overestimated the short-term effects of their injuries. Coaches overestimated the disrupting effects of the injury for 10 higher level athletes and 25 athletes with no previous injury.

PERCEPTIONS OF ATHLETIC INJURIES BY ATHLETES, COACHES, AND MEDICAL PROFESSIONALS

35 athletes, their coaches, and medical professionals independently assessed the disruption, seriousness, and short-term effects of the athletes' athletic injuries. Athletes underestimated the disruption and short-term effects of the injury when compared to medical professionals. 25 lower level athletes and those with no previous serious athletic injury overestimated the short-term effects of their injuries. Coaches overestimated the disrupting effects of the injury for 10 higher level athletes and 25 athletes with no previous injury.