Low-income Food-deficit Countries Research Articles

Village Chickens for Achieving Sustainable Development Goals 1 and 2 in Resource-Poor Communities: A Literature Review

The rapid increase in the global human population, particularly in Low-Income Food Deficit Countries (LIFDCs), causes severe food shortages. Food shortages are complex and can be linked to economic, environmental, social, and political variables. Harnessing village chicken products serves as a cheap commercial chicken substitute to address food shortages. The consumption and sales of protein products from village chickens, such as meat, eggs, and internal organs, ensures food security and poverty alleviation in limited-resource communities. However, village chickens have poor-quality end products due to poor management and animal-rearing resources. Village chicken production challenges include the absence of high-quality feed, biosecurity, recordkeeping, housing, and commercial marketing of its end products. Management being based on cultural gender roles instead of the possession of formal poultry management training further limits village chicken production. To improve village chicken end-product quality, poultry management trainings for rural women are suggested due to studies showing that women mainly manage village chicken production. Furthermore, to create a formal market share of village chickens, sensory evaluations need to be conducted using mainstream poultry consumers. This review examined the potential contribution of village chickens in achieving Sustainable Development Goals—one, No Poverty and two, Zero Hunger—to benefit vulnerable groups in resource-poor communities.

Sustainability in Aquaculture: A Note

Food production through aquaculture is one of the fastest-growing industries in the world. World aquaculture production is dominated by low-income food-deficit countries, which account for the majority of production. There is a great deal of expectation that aquaculture will contribute to the world's aquatic food production, and there is also hope that aquaculture will continue to grow in the future as a result of stagnant yields from many capture fisheries and increasing demand for fish and fishery products. In contrast, aquaculture is widely recognized as encompassing a wide range of different types of aquatic farming practices, such as seaweed farming, mollusk farming, crustacean farming, fish farming, and other aquatic species. Using different resource use patterns, there is a wide range of options for diversification, such as seaweed farming, mollusk farming, crustacean farming, and fish farming. Currently, aquaculture produces nearly a third of the world's edible fish supplies, and its contribution to marine food sources will only grow. As a sustainable alternative to catch fisheries, aquaculture has the potential to feed the world's rising population. Globally, aquaculture is the fastest-growing sector of the food industry, growing at a rate of more than 10% per year and accounting for more than 30% of all fish consumed. In regards to long-term sustainability, aquaculture faces the same issues as all other food production methods.

Aquaculture, Fish and Fisheries: A new home for the Blue Revolution

<i>Aquaculture, Fish and Fisheries</i>: A new home for the Blue Revolution

The state of cage culture in Lake Victoria: A focus on sustainability, rural economic empowerment, and food security

Abstract Capture fisheries and aquaculture have remained important sources of food, nutrition, income and livelihoods to millions globally, with annual per capita consumption of fish in developing countries having increased from 5.2 kg in 1961 to 18.8 kg in 2013. On the contrary, low income food-deficit countries annual fish per capita consumption rose from 3.5 to 7.6 kg against 26.8 kg among industrialized countries. Increased demand for animal protein and declining capture fisheries has seen aquaculture grow rapidly than any other food production sector over the past three decades. Rapid global aquaculture growth is directly related to levels of technological advancement, adoption and adaption prompting aquaculture transition from semi-intensive to intensive and super intensive production systems among developing and developed countries. In light of the aquatic environment economic potential, cage culture in Lake Victoria is fast gaining prominence in aquaculture production contribution. This began with trials by Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute and Uganda’s National Fisheries Resource Research Institute and later by private investors at Dunga and Obenge beaches of Kenya, Source of the Nile in Uganda and Bulamba Beach Management Units in Bunda District of Tanzania. However, only Kenya has so far documented cage culture development recording 3,696 cages across the five riparian counties with an estimated production capacity of 3,180 MT valued at Kshs 955.4 Million (9.6 million USD), created over 500 jobs directly and indirectly created income opportunities for over 4,000 people. The sub-sector’s value chain, its supportive value chains and associated enterprises are rapidly expanding thus creating jobs, enhancing incomes and ensuring food security in rural and urban areas. As cage culture commercialization takes root, there is urgent need to address issues such as introduction of alien species, diseases, marine parks and maximum carrying capacity among other aspects. This will require trans-boundary policy to ensure sustainable utilization of the lake as a common resource.

The global effect of extreme weather events on nutrient supply: a superposed epoch analysis

To date, the effects of extreme weather events on nutrient supply within the population have not been quantified. In this study, we investigated micronutrient, macronutrient, and fibre supply changes during 175 extreme weather events within 87 countries in the year that a major extreme weather event occurred, with a targeted focus on low-income settings. We collected data from the International Disasters Database and the Global Expanded Nutrient Supply model for the period 1961-2010, and applied superposed epoch analysis to calculate the percentage change in nutrient supply during the year of an extreme weather event relative to its historical context. We composited globally and by subgroup (EU, landlocked developing countries, least developed countries, low-income food deficit countries, and net food-importing developing countries). Lastly, we reported nutrient supply changes in terms of recommended dietary allowance for children aged 1-3 years. Globally, all micronutrient supplies had a modest negative percentage change during the year of an extreme weather event; of these effects, those that reached an α=0·05 significance level included calcium, folate, thiamin, vitamin B6, and vitamin C, with nutrient supply changes ranging from -0·40 to -1·73% of the average supply. The effect of an extreme weather event was especially magnified among landlocked developing countries and low-income food deficit countries, with significant nutrient supply changes ranging from -1·61 to -7·57% of the average supply. Furthermore, the observed nutrient supply deficits in landlocked developing countries constituted a large percentage (ranging from 1·95 to 39·19%) of what a healthy child's sufficient average dietary intake should be. The global effects of extreme weather events on nutrient supply found in this study are modest in isolation; however, in the context of nutrient needs for healthy child development in low-income settings, the effects observed are substantial. Australian-American Fulbright Commission.

International Interdependence between Cash Crop and Staple Food Futures Price Indices: A Dynamic Assessment

Abstract:This study examines the price level and volatility interaction between international staple food and cash crop futures price indices. Understanding the relationship between these commodities bears significant implications for low-income food deficit countries that depend on cash crops to finance food import bills. We use a wavelet analysis to decompose the price indices and then apply a BEKK-MGARCH (Baba, Engle, Kraft and Kroner–multivariate generalized autoregressive conditional heteroskedasticity) approach to analyze the relationship across timescales. Results indicate the level of correlation and volatility linkages are strongest at lower frequencies (longer run) than at higher timescales (short run), with information running from staple food to cash crop markets.

The chicken or the egg? Exploring bi-directional associations between Newcastle disease vaccination and village chicken flock size in rural Tanzania.

Newcastle disease (ND) is a viral disease of poultry with global importance, responsible for the loss of a potential source of household nutrition and economic livelihood in many low-income food-deficit countries. Periodic outbreaks of this endemic disease result in high mortality amongst free-ranging chicken flocks and may serve as a disincentive for rural households to invest time or resources in poultry-keeping. Sustainable ND control can be achieved through vaccination using a thermotolerant vaccine administered via eyedrop by trained “community vaccinators”. This article evaluates the uptake and outcomes of fee-for-service ND vaccination programs in eight rural villages in the semi-arid central zone of Tanzania. It represents part of an interdisciplinary program seeking to address chronic undernutrition in children through improvements to existing poultry and crop systems. Newcastle disease vaccination uptake was found to vary substantially across communities and seasons, with a significantly higher level of vaccination amongst households participating in a longitudinal study of children’s growth compared with non-participating households (p = 0.009). Two multivariable model analyses were used to explore associations between vaccination and chicken numbers, allowing for clustered data and socioeconomic and cultural variation amongst the population. Results demonstrated that both (a) households that undertook ND vaccination had a significantly larger chicken flock size in the period between that vaccination campaign and the next compared with those that did not vaccinate (p = 0.018); and (b) households with larger chicken flocks at the time of vaccination were significantly more likely to participate in vaccination programs (p < 0.001). Additionally, households vaccinating in all three vaccination campaigns held over 12 months were identified to have significantly larger chicken flocks at the end of this period (p < 0.001). Opportunities to understand causality and complexity through quantitative analyses are limited, and there is a role for qualitative approaches to explore decisions made by poultry-keeping households and the motivations, challenges and priorities of community vaccinators. Evidence of a bi-directional relationship, however, whereby vaccination leads to greater chicken numbers, and larger flocks are more likely to be vaccinated, offers useful insights into the efficacy of fee-for-service animal health programs. This article concludes that attention should be focused on ways of supporting the participation of vulnerable households in ND vaccination campaigns, and encouraging regular vaccination throughout the year, as a pathway to strengthen food security, promote resilience and contribute to improved human nutrition.

Inland fisheries – Invisible but integral to the UN Sustainable Development Agenda for ending poverty by 2030

Abstract The United Nations’ (UN) 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development defines the formidable challenge of integrating historically separate economic, social, and environmental goals into a unified ‘plan of action for people, planet, and prosperity.’ We highlight the substantial contribution inland fisheries can make towards preventing increased poverty and, in some cases, alleviating poverty (i.e. addressing Sustainable Development Goal [SDG] 1: No Poverty) as an opportunity to inform the next set of development agendas and their associated budgets and priorities. Overlooking the contribution of inland fisheries to poverty prevention and alleviation may undermine the capacity to successfully meet the development goals, especially in rural communities in Low-Income Food-Deficit countries. Inland fisheries are essential for food and economic security as the vast majority are small-scale operations or subsistence, predominantly used by poorer groups. Protecting inland fisheries from diverse threats from other water users and associated sectors requires robust, multi-sectoral, and multinational policies that can be brought about by global initiatives like the SDGs. Without such protection, their vital contribution towards sustainable livelihoods and poverty issues becomes uncertain. Further, integrating inland fisheries into sustainable development frameworks strengthens the likelihood of achieving the UN Agenda for Sustainable Development. In this perspective article, we posit that including inland fisheries in national policy statements and programs can prove beneficial to promoting economic and social growth for the poor, preventing further poverty, and achieving SDG 1 and other SDG targets, especially those related to food security.

Metabolite profiling of yam (Dioscorea spp.) accessions for use in crop improvement programmes

IntroductionNinety-seven percent of yam (Dioscorea spp.) production takes place in low income food deficit countries (LIFDCs) and the crop provides 200 calories a day to approximately 300 million people. Therefore, yams are vital for food security. Yams have high-yield potential and high market value potential yet current breeding of yam is hindered by a lack of genomic information and genetic resources. New tools are needed to modernise breeding strategies and unlock the potential of yam to improve livelihood in LIFDCs.ObjectivesMetabolomic screening has been undertaken on a diverse panel of Dioscorea accessions to assess the utility of the approach for advancing breeding strategies in this understudied crop.MethodsPolar and lipophilic extracts from tubers of accessions from the global yam breeding program have been comprehensively profiled via gas chromatography-mass spectrometry.ResultsA visual pathway representation of the measured yam tuber metabolome has been delivered as a resource for biochemical evaluation of yam germplasm. Over 200 compounds were routinely measured in tubers, providing a major advance for the chemo-typing of this crop. Core biochemical redundancy concealed trends that were only elucidated following detailed mining of global metabolomics data. Combined analysis on leaf and tuber material identified a subset of metabolites which allow accurate species classification and highlighted the potential of predicting tuber composition from leaf profiles. Metabolic variation was accession-specific and often localised to compound classes, which will aid trait-targeting for metabolite markers.ConclusionsMetabolomics provides a standalone platform with potential to deliver near-future crop gains for yam. The approach compliments the genetic advancements currently underway and integration with other ‘–omics’ studies will deliver a significant advancement to yam breeding strategies.

On the sustainability of inland fisheries: Finding a future for the forgotten.

At present, inland fisheries are not often a national or regional governance priority and as a result, inland capture fisheries are undervalued and largely overlooked. As such they are threatened in both developing and developed countries. Indeed, due to lack of reliable data, inland fisheries have never been part of any high profile global fisheries assessment and are notably absent from the Sustainable Development Goals. The general public and policy makers are largely ignorant of the plight of freshwater ecosystems and the fish they support, as well as the ecosystem services generated by inland fisheries. This ignorance is particularly salient given that the current emphasis on the food-water-energy nexus often fails to include the important role that inland fish and fisheries play in food security and supporting livelihoods in low-income food deficit countries. Developing countries in Africa and Asia produce about 11 million tonnes of inland fish annually, 90 % of the global total. The role of inland fisheries goes beyond just kilocalories; fish provide important micronutrients and essentially fatty acids. In some regions, inland recreational fisheries are important, generating much wealth and supporting livelihoods. The following three key recommendations are necessary for action if inland fisheries are to become a part of the food-water-energy discussion: invest in improved valuation and assessment methods, build better methods to effectively govern inland fisheries (requires capacity building and incentives), and develop approaches to managing waters across sectors and scales. Moreover, if inland fisheries are recognized as important to food security, livelihoods, and human well-being, they can be more easily incorporated in regional, national, and global policies and agreements on water issues. Through these approaches, inland fisheries can be better evaluated and be more fully recognized in broader water resource and aquatic ecosystem planning and decision-making frameworks, enhancing their value and sustainability for the future.

Towards household food and nutrition security in semi-arid areas: What role for condensed tannin-rich ruminant feedstuffs?

The global demand for food is projected to continue its upward trend for at least another 40 years while undernutrition among infants, young children, and women remains a major problem. These challenges of food and nutrition insecurity are particularly pronounced in the semi-arid regions of the world. In semi-arid areas, ruminant animal production often represents the best option to meet the projected demand for food since crop production is constrained by erratic rainfall patterns. However, the productivity of ruminant animals in these semi-arid regions is generally accepted to be too low to meet the demand for animal products. This yield gap occurs due to various production constraints that will be explored in this review. Chief among these constraints is the fluctuation in quantity and quality of feed due to growing conditions that only support seasonal growth of grasses in rangelands. Complementing grasses as a source of feed for ruminant animals, is a collection of shrub and browse tree products that can be used during the long dry seasons. Although ubiquitous and, as such, a potential solution to feed shortages, browse products tend to contain secondary plant compounds especially tannins, whose effect on the nutrition of the ruminant is far from being unequivocal. Recent evidence also shows tannins improve composition, quality and shelf life of ruminant products. This review is designed to explore ways through which the beneficial nutritional effects of tannin-rich browse products can be maximized to plug the animal product yield and quality gap and improve food and nutrition security in semi-arid areas of low-income food-deficit countries.

The least developed countries - the case of the Congo D.R.

The article is focused on food problem in the least developed countries, on the chosen areas where the overall situation is the most problematic. It deals with the Democratic Republic of the Congo, belonging to the low income food deficit countries with one of the world's lowest rates of the gross domestic product per capita. The paper defines the food security situation in a global connection, representing a wide complex of economic, social, demographic, technologic and political aspects of production, distribution, shift and consumption of foodstuffs. Despite some progresses in the political situation, the effects of the economic crisis and the widespread food insecurity are expected to persist. Te humanitarian assistance is now needed to support the needs of the most vulnerable. In the longer term, the countries have the significant goal of consolidating peace and security and strengthening the overall governance, while at the same time reconstructing and rehabilitating their economy.

Expansion of Rice for Job Initiative Programme: Implications for Household Food Security in Lagos State Nigeria

Nigeria is listed among the 55 Low Income Food Deficit (LIFD) countries due to the high prevalence of undernourishment especially among agricultural households. Against the background that most indirect measures of food insecurity such as dietary intake, anthropometric measure, income and total expenditure fail to address the severity of food insecurity, this study applied the experienced-based method. This study assessed the potential impact of Expansion of Rice for Job Initiative Programme on household food security in Lagos State Nigeria using the USDA method and logit model. The study found relatively high incidence of food insecurity (52.5%) among the rice farm households. The logit results revealed that household food security has a 50/50 chance of improvement with additional level of education, increase in farm size and household income. Food insecurity however increases with additional family member. Inadequate rainfall, lack of technical knowledge and low extension services are the highly ranked constraints of rice production in the study area. Large family size reduces the consumption of nutritious food; low extension services reduce the adoption of new agricultural technologies and inadequate technical know-how causes inefficiency. These have effects on household income and increase the severity of food insecurity. Educating farm household head on family size control and adequate training on improved farm techniques are recommended. Household heads should be educated on the nutritional importance of food items. Irrigation facilities are important to enhance productivity. Diversification of household income will ensure regular income for the households. The impact of this empowerment initiative on household food security will be more if the rice farmers (beneficiaries) can be provided with improved production technologies and incentives.

Family poultry and food and nutrition security.

Abstract Family poultry production, which encompasses both extensive and small-scale intensive management systems, is practiced by many households in low-income food-deficit countries. Despite low production levels and potentially high losses due to disease, predation and theft, scavenging systems offer the advantage of requiring minimal land, labour and capital inputs. Human undernutrition remains a major public health challenge globally, contributing to over 3 million preventable maternal and child deaths each year. Animal source foods, including poultry (meat and organs) and eggs, can provide high-quality protein and micronutrients in bioavailable forms which, even in small quantities, substantially increase the nutrient adequacy of traditional diets based on staple crops. Women are recognized as key players in family poultry production systems and successful engagement with this sector should incorporate gender-sensitive approaches. It has been shown that agricultural interventions which target women are more likely to lead to positive nutritional outcomes. A multi-disciplinary research approach, multi-sectoral involvement within government institutions and the implementation of policies which target smallholder farmers is needed in order to maximize the potential impact of improvements to family poultry systems on food and nutritional security.

Antioxidant enzyme activity, proline accumulation, leaf area and cell membrane stability in water stressed Amaranthus leaves

Traditional crops are extremely important for food production in low income, food-deficit countries (LIFDCs) where they continue to be maintained by socio-cultural preferences and traditional uses. Significant potential exists to improve these crops, one of which is to select for improved productivity during moisture stress conditions. Germplasm of Amaranthus tricolor, Amaranthus hypochondriacus and Amaranthus hybridus were subjected to various screening methods to measure metabolic and physiological changes during water stress. The activities of enzymes involved in the oxygen-scavenging system during abiotic stress conditions (superoxide dismutase (SOD), ascorbate peroxidase (APX) and glutathione reductase (GR)), free proline production, leaf area (LA), cell membrane stability (CMS), leaf water potential (LWP) and relative water content (RWC) were measured in these three amaranth species during induced water stress. This study showed significant differences in metabolic responses during water deficit of the three species tested. Moisture stress and a decrease in RWC and LWP were first experienced in A. hybridus and A. hypochondriacus, followed by A. tricolor. There was an indirect correlation between leaf water status (RWC and LWP), enzyme activity, proline production and leaf area. The combined effect of GR, APX and SOD could ensure higher levels of regulation of the toxic effect of H2O2 which could be associated with drought tolerance in Amaranthus. Distinct differences in onset of proline accumulation and the amount of accumulated in leaves upon induced water stress was noticed for the three amaranth species tested. Proline accumulation during water stress conditions in amaranth seems to be indirect and could possibly have a protective role apart from osmoregulation during stress conditions. This contention is supported by the decrease in leaf area and high cell membrane stability for two of the species tested. This study forms part of a project aimed at the development of improved traditional crops to contribute to food production and quality for subsistence farmers in areas with low precipitation or variable rainfall patterns.

Transgenic peanut overexpressing the DREB1A transcription factor has higher yields under drought stress

Transgenic research using the DREB group of transcription factors has received much attention in developing drought-tolerant and climate-ready varieties of crop plants. While many reports have demonstrated increased tolerance to water deficits under laboratory and greenhouse conditions, only a few have tested possible effects under field conditions, with limited success in most cases. Here, we present evidence of a transgenic solution for enhanced drought tolerance in peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.), which is an important grain legume and a valuable cash crop for smallholder and resource-poor farmers occupying the largest portion of the farming systems in low income food deficit countries. The presence, integration, expression and inheritance of the transgene in advancing generations of the transgenic peanut plants were assessed using PCR, Southern blot, inverse-PCR, RT-PCR and q-PCR techniques. Four trials were conducted in various water stress regimes under varying vapour pressure deficits (VPDs), and drought tolerance was studied using various component traits of drought. A substantial yield improvement of up to 24 % in drought trials under field conditions was achieved across a wide range of stress intensities and was related to higher harvest indices (HIs). All transgenic events had significantly higher seed filling under drought and displayed 20–30 % lower pod yield reduction than their untransformed counterpart under drought stress. Two transgenic events showed yield advantage under drought stress that consistently had higher pod and seed yield than the untransformed parent under drought stress across all trials, without displaying any yield penalty under irrigated conditions.

Remote sensing of rice crop areas

Rice means life for millions of people and it is planted in many regions of the world. It primarily grows in the major river deltas of Asia and Southeast Asia, such as the Mekong Delta, known as the Rice Bowl of Vietnam, the second-largest rice-producing nation on Earth. However, Latin America, the USA, and Australia have extensive rice-growing regions. In addition, rice is the most rapidly growing source of food in Africa. Rice is therefore of significant importance to food security in an increasing number of low-income food-deficit countries. This review article gives a complementary overview of how remote sensing can support the assessment of paddy rice cultivation worldwide. This article presents and discusses methods for rice mapping and monitoring, differentiating between the results achievable using different sensors of various spectral characteristics and spatial resolution. The remote sensing of rice-growing areas can not only contribute to the precise mapping of rice areas and the assessment of the dynamics in rice-growing regions, but can also contribute to harvest prediction modelling, the analyses of plant diseases, the assessment of rice-based greenhouse gas (methane) emission due to vegetation submersion, the investigation of erosion-control-adapted agricultural systems, and the assessment of ecosystem services in rice-growing areas.

The use of organized commodity markets to manage food import price instability and risk

The article explores the possibility of insuring the price risks of wheat and maize imports of low-income food-deficit countries (LIFDCs). Optimal strategies for an importing agent, who hedges with futures and options are derived, based on the objective of minimizing the unpredictability of import bills. Ex post simulations for a set of LIFDCs are run on wheat and maize imports hedged with futures and options in the Chicago Board of Trade, to explore the extent to which hedging reduces the unpredictability in import bills. Simulations encompass both periods of normal price behavior, as well as the period of global upheaval that occurred in 2007 and 2008. Results show that hedging with futures alone affords agents considerable opportunities for reducing import cost unpredictability, and the same holds with options, albeit, to a lesser extent. However, during the recent price spike of 2007–2008, hedging with options would have increased the unpredictability of some countries’ maize import bills, due to the combination of erratic import patterns and pronounced market uncertainty.

EHPnet: Special Programme for Food Security

At the same time that developed countries—where an abundant stream of cheap and easily accessible food is ever ready for consumption—struggle to cope with increasing rates of obesity among their populations, the picture is strikingly different in the world’s less developed counties, where more than 800 million people are chronically undernourished. Food security—having physical and economic access to enough safe, nutritious food—is inextricably linked with environmental conditions. Weather extremes that impede growing conditions can limit or curtail food production, especially in regions where such conditions persist, and floods can cause rates of food-borne cholera to rise. Weather-related famines are now affecting millions of people in Africa, 12.5 million in Ethiopia alone. The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization’s Special Programme for Food Security (SPFS), located online at http://www.fao.org/spfs/, is one effort to help developing countries improve their food security. The SPFS was begun in 1994 and endorsed at the 1996 World Food Summit, where delegates called for a halving of the number of malnourished people in the world by the year 2015. The program aims to improve nations’ food security through rapid increases in food production and productivity, by reducing year-to-year variability in food production, and by improving people’s access to food. The SPFS webpage provides a look at the work done by the program, offering information in Arabic, Chinese, English, French, and Spanish. The program currently provides assistance in 100 countries, most of which are termed “low-income food deficit countries.” The SPFS uses a two-phase approach to introducing new food management methods, described on the Phases and Approaches page. It first provides farmers and others working on the project with the basic essentials—seeds and farming implements—along with training in best practices. Each project has four components, including water control, intensification of crop production systems, diversification of production systems, and analysis and resolution of obstacles. In the second phase, successful approaches are scaled up, and the SPFS works at the national level in member countries to create a nationwide strategy for food security. Once a community agrees to use a new system, it is adapted, with community input, to best meet the community’s needs and take advantage of local resources. For example, a treadle pump developed in Bangladesh is now in use in several other Asian and African countries. This pump, described on the Best Practices page, allows more land to be irrigated with less strenuous labor involved than use of a traditional watering can. The Case Studies page includes a description of how the treadle pump was introduced in Zambia, allowing many farmers to double their growing area and grow new crops, with significant increases in income. Two of the SPFS regions, Asia and Central America, have sections within the main site. Here visitors can find information on the project work going on in specific countries within each region. Each country page includes geographic and economic overviews, information on training sessions, an outline of how the SPFS was implemented in that country, and a list of technologies developed there. For example, in Bangladesh, the SPFS was involved in developing a new cooking stove that uses less fuel and discharges smoke from the indoor environment, therefore reducing indoor concentrations of hazardous particulate matter.

Gender issues in family poultry production systems in low-income food-deficit countries

AbstractDespite efforts to develop intensive poultry production, family poultry (FP) is still very important in low-income, food-deficit countries (LIFDCs). In LIFDCs, the keeping of poultry by local communities has been practiced for many generations. FP is an appropriate system for supplying the fast-growing human population with high-quality protein. It can also provide additional income to the generally resource-poor small farmers, especially women. Although requiring low levels of inputs, FP contributes significantly to food security, poverty alleviation and ecologically sound management of natural resources. FP is also a source of employment for underprivileged groups and less-favored areas in LIFDCs. Developing schemes that aim to promote and improve the FP sub-sector in a way that is sustainable must not underestimate the roles and contributions of women. However, getting new information to the front line of production requires more gender-disaggregated data. This paper stresses the need to design, implement, monitor and evaluate FP development programs by taking into account socio-cultural, especially gender, issues.