Low-income Fathers Research Articles

Closeness and Direct Engagement: A Confirmatory Factor Analysis of Non-Resident Father Involvement

Measures of father involvement have predominantly comprised quantitative/frequency measures of direct engagement activities with children. Such measures tend to show that non-resident fathers are less involved than resident fathers and limit our understanding of non-resident fathering. This study’s purpose was to identify a construct of non-resident fathering that included an affective dimension, father–child closeness, among racially/ethnically diverse fathers and their nine-year-old children ( N = 1267). A confirmatory factor analysis using data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study was conducted using father- and mother-reports of paternal direct engagement and child reports of father–child closeness. Results indicated a good model fit and that father–child closeness and direct engagement were appropriate indicators of non-resident father involvement. Results suggest that researchers should consider including both affective and frequency measures when studying father involvement, and practitioners should attend to the potential value of promoting father–child closeness among racially/ethnically diverse, low-income fathers.

The Effect of Paternal Economic Hardship on Nonresident Father Involvement and Co-parenting Among Racially/Ethnically Diverse Fathers

The present study utilized structural equation modeling with secondary Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study data ( N = 1,267) to examine the relations between paternal economic hardship, nonresident father involvement, and co-parenting. Findings showed that paternal economic hardship (Year 5) was associated with higher child-reported father–child closeness ( p < .05), but lower father-reported co-parenting ( p < .05), at Year 9. Higher mother-reported co-parenting (Year 9) was associated with increased mother-reported father involvement ( p < .001) at Year 9. Findings underscore the importance of including multiple perspectives, and practical implications include the need for practitioners to foster healthy co-parenting relationships to concurrently increase nonresident father involvement among racially/ethnically diverse and low-income fathers.

Promoting father engagement among low-income fathers: fathers’ narratives on what matters in a fatherhood programme in the western US

ABSTRACT Over the past two decades increased attention has been paid to promoting positive father involvement. Much of this effort has occurred through the development of fatherhood education programmes, however, examining the ways in which these programmes impact how men enact their fatherhood roles, especially those from diverse backgrounds is limited. Based on focus group data derived from ethnically diverse low-income fathers (n = 40), participating in a fatherhood education programme, we identified the following programme themes as integral to increasing father engagement: (1) social support from facilitators, (2) peer support among fathers, (3) feeling valued in family relationships, (4) improvements in co-parenting relationship, and (5) increased knowledge of child development. These findings provide critical information on the aspects of fatherhood programmes that men deem as most impactful to their fatherhood role and identity. The data also highlighted the positive ways in which the programme impacted fathering behaviours. Moreover, these qualitative results highlight key focus areas for practitioners, scholars, and policy makers in their continued efforts to support father involvement.

Preliminary Validation of the Multidimensional Father Involvement Scale for Low-Income Fathers

Abstract: The current study represents a preliminary validation of the Multidimensional Father Involvement Scale (MFIS), a measure to assess father involvement among cohabiting and non-cohabiting low-income fathers of children (6 months– 11 years old). The 43-item scale includes items modified from the Inventory of Father Involvement (A. Hawkins et al., 2002) and Early Childhood Longitudinal Study–Birth Cohort (Bronte-Tinkew et al., 2007) and additional items to assess indirect behavioral and nonbehavioral (affective, cognitive, and ethical) involvement. Study 1, which included interviews with low-income fathers (15 Black and 4 Latino), supported face and construct validity. Study 2, which included 125 (61.6% White, 16.8% Black, and 15.2% Latino) low-income cohabiting fathers, supported concurrent and discriminant validity. Although confirmatory factor analysis did not support the hypothesized factors, the MFIS had strong internal consistency (α = .95) and appears to be a promising measure for assessing a broad range of father involvement among low-income and racial minority fathers.

Longitudinal Associations Among Low-Income Fathers’ Resilience and Nonresidence During Early Childhood and Involvement During Adolescence

Longitudinal Associations Among Low-Income Fathers’ Resilience and Nonresidence During Early Childhood and Involvement During Adolescence

TRUE Dads: The impact of a couples-based fatherhood intervention on family relationships, child outcomes, and economic self-sufficiency.

TRUE Dads, a federally funded Responsible Fatherhood intervention, aims to strengthen three of men's key roles in the family: (1) as fathers, building and maintaining positive engagement with their child; (2) as partners, maintaining a positive relationship with their co-parent; and (3) as providers, through fostering employment and economic self-sufficiency. A feature of the program is that low-income fathers and their co-parenting partners participate together in 6 3-hour group workshops, followed by optional participation in an additional 6 3-hour workshops. Fathers in the intervention condition were offered a chance to participate in a 2-week employment program. 1,042 co-parenting teams were recruited and randomly assigned to TRUE Dads' group intervention (60%) or a no-treatment control group (40%). In analyses of single measures, one year after study entry, compared with no-treatment controls, TRUE Dads program participants reported fewer depressive symptoms, less destructive couple communication and domestic violence, and increased employment for fathers. Using expanded latent variable measures of core constructs, Structural Equation Modeling revealed indirect effects of the intervention, in which reductions in both parents' negative symptoms and destructive couple communication were associated with (a) reductions in negative parenting qualities and children's behavior problems and (b) increases in fathers' economic self-sufficiency. Reducing parents' personal distress and improving relationship quality between co-parents appears to be important to enhancing fathers' positive family engagement. From a family policy perspective, the results suggest that integration rather than separation of healthy marriage, responsible fatherhood, and employment programs could provide synergistic power to programs designed to strengthen low-income families.

Validation of the Substance Abuse Scale of the Personal and Relationships Profile

Abstract There have been limited measurement studies of the substance abuse scale of the Personal and Relationships Profile (PRP) and the impact of social desirability on alcohol and drug use reporting. This study aimed to (a) model the factor structure of the eight-item substance abuse scale of the PRP and (b) examine the relationship of substance use factors with sociodemographic variables—race, income, age, marital status—and social desirability on substance use reporting among a sample of low-income fathers. The study included secondary data analysis of 665 fathers, who participated in a fatherhood program between 2011 and 2015. The two-factor model with the addition of two error covariances exhibited acceptable fit to the data. Sociodemographic characteristics were significantly associated with alcohol and drug use among the sample with social desirability being the strongest predictor of lower alcohol and drug use reporting. Findings suggest that alcohol and drugs are distinct constructs that should be assessed separately, despite being correlated. In social work practice and research, the influence of social desirability in reporting should be accounted for when assessing substance use.

Struggling to Make Good: The Dilemmas of Fatherhood for Formerly Incarcerated African American Men

While some have argued that absent low socioeconomic status black fathers are to blame for urban crime and poverty, others have highlighted how mass incarceration disproportionately separates low socioeconomic status black fathers from their children. Less frequently heard and acknowledged in the public conversations about low socioeconomic status black fatherhood and mass incarceration are the voices of those same fathers who have been impacted by the system. How do formerly incarcerated black fathers view their role as fathers? Based on 30 interviews of formerly incarcerated black men recruited from a prisoner reentry organization in a large northeastern city in the United States, we found that interviewees talked about fatherhood in two different ways. On the one hand, our most common finding was that interviewees talked about fatherhood as a motivation for desistance from criminal activity. In this finding they connected provider roles and being present in the lives of their children with their planned desistance from crime. On the other hand, interviewees also mentioned fatherhood as a part of explanations for past criminal activity, in what we call strain narratives. In these stories, they typically mentioned their provider roles as fathers as part of the overall economic strain that they faced. Counter to the dominant cultural impression of low socioeconomic status black fathers as absent/uncaring, both the desistance and strain narratives demonstrated a considerable amount of concern with respect to their identities as fathers, and therefore as men. We argue for the significance of masculinity in explaining the fatherhood narratives of formerly incarcerated black men. In doing so, we build on previous qualitative work on low-income fathers, crime as doing gender, and desistance narratives in prisoner reentry.

Longitudinal Associations Between Early Risk, Father Engagement, and Coparenting and Low-Income Fathers’ Engagement With Children in Middle Childhood

The current investigation examined the longitudinal associations among low-income, urban fathers’ risk factors, engagement with children, and coparenting support during early childhood and paternal engagement with children at age 9 years. Using Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing data ( N = 2104), the results showed that additive individual and family risk when children were infants and preschool-age negatively predicted father engagement at age 9. Father engagement with toddlers and preschoolers positively predicted later paternal involvement with children, but coparenting support during early childhood did not predict father engagement at age 9. There was one significant moderation effect: fathers who were highly engaged with toddlers reported lower levels of engagement during middle childhood when they experienced a higher level of risk factors at age 5. Implications for researchers, practitioners, and policy makers are discussed.

Determinants of Paternal Engagement: Investigating Low-Income Fathers’ Caregiving, Play, and Verbal Engagement With Infants

Extant research highlights the importance of early paternal engagement for children and families. Thus, there is strong support for the exploration of predictors of low-income father engagement. Informed by Belsky’s process model of parenting, this study explores contextual determinants of father–infant engagement (i.e., verbal engagement, physical play, and caregiving) including the unique contributions of the child, the father, and the broader social context. We utilized survey data from a sample of 183 non-residential, cohabitating, and married low-income fathers of infants participating in a home-visiting intervention. Results demonstrated that infant age was associated with increased caregiving and verbal engagement, fathers’ total work hours were negatively correlated with verbal engagement, fathers’ depressive symptoms were linked to increased physical play, and the quality of the coparenting alliance was related to physical play and caregiving. Findings may inform programs designed to promote paternal engagement during infancy.

O31 Determining Low-Income Fathers’ Preferred mHealth Nutrition-Related Topics, Features, and Delivery Methods

Background There is limited evidence about fathers’ preferences related to using mHealth tools to receive nutrition and obesity prevention information for their preschool aged children. Objective The purpose of this qualitative study was to determine fathers’ preferred mHealth nutrition-related topics, features, and delivery methods. Study Design, Setting, Participants Low-income fathers (n = 29) of preschool aged children from 2 US states were individually interviewed by a trained research assistant using a semi-structured interview script. Measurable Outcome/Analysis Interview questions were based on the Theory of Planned Behavior to determine fathers’ subjective norms, preferences, and attitudes towards mHealth tools, content and video preferences, and behavioral intentions related to using mHealth tools. The classic analysis approach was used to determine major themes from transcribed interviews. Descriptive statistics of participants were derived from a demographics questionnaire. Results Fathers were, on average, 36 years old, and the majority were non-White (69%) and non-Hispanic (79%), with almost half having a high school education or less (48%). Overall themes indicated that fathers preferred mHealth tools such as an app, social media, videos, text messages, and email. There were mixed opinions on the use of memes and GIFs. Requested topics included healthy eating, child feeding, meal preparation, food safety, physical activity, and mental health related information. Features should include practical tips, meal plans, recipes, a calendar with healthy lifestyle reminders, options to connect with other fathers, and personalization for their child. Content should be short, funny, appealing, engaging, informational, beneficial, and include visuals, yet be credible, relatable, and straightforward. Frequency of information should be posted or shared every day or at least once or twice a week. Conclusion The use of an app or social media to communicate healthy eating and child feeding information to low-income fathers of preschool age children may be a viable nutrition education strategy. Funding NIFA.

Resilience resources in low-income Black, Latino, and White fathers

Background and aimResilience resources are associated with positive mental and physical health outcomes. However, we know little about protective factors in low-income or racially or ethnically diverse populations of men. This study examined socioeconomic status and racial/ethnic differences in resilience resources among low-income Black, Latino, and White fathers of infants. MethodsThe Community Child Health Network conducted a cohort study of mothers and fathers in five sites across the U.S. A sample of fathers who identified as Black, Latino/Hispanic, or non-Hispanic White were recruited and interviewed at home on three occasions during the first year of parenting (n = 597). Several resilience resources were assessed: mastery, self-esteem, dispositional optimism, approach-oriented coping style, positive affect, social support, and spirituality. The first five resources were interrelated and scored as a composite. ResultsMultivariate analyses adjusted for covariates indicated that Black fathers had higher scores on the resilience resources composite compared to White and Latino fathers. Black fathers were also highest in spirituality, followed by Latino fathers who were higher than White fathers. There were significant interactions between race/ethnicity with income and education in predicting optimism, spirituality, and self-esteem. Higher education was associated with higher scores on the resilience resources composite and spirituality in Black fathers, and higher education was associated with higher self-esteem in Black and Latino fathers. Higher income was associated with higher optimism in White fathers. ConclusionThese results indicate that levels of individual resilience factors are patterned by income, education, and race/ethnicity in low-income fathers, with many possible implications for research and policy.

Parental Nonstandard Work Schedules and Child Development: Evidence from Dual-Earner Families in Hong Kong.

With the emergence of 24/7 economies, the practice of working nonstandard schedules has become increasingly common. This trend raises a concern about how parental nonstandard work schedules affect child development outcomes. Using data from dual-earner families with young children (age 5–6) in Hong Kong, this study examined the association between parental work schedules and child development. It also examined under what conditions parental nonstandard work schedules affect child development, with a focus on the moderating role of family income. Results showed that paternal nonstandard work schedules were negatively associated with overall child development. This association was particularly salient among low-income families. By contrast, maternal nonstandard work schedules were not associated with child development outcomes. These findings suggest that it is important to equip parents, in particular low-income fathers, to address challenges resulting from their nonstandard work schedules.

Family leaves for fathers: Non-users as a test for parental leave reforms

The proportion of total parental leave days taken by fathers has increased in all Nordic countries almost hand in hand with parental leave reforms. However, the average pattern of fathers’ parental leave uptake hides the fact that a considerable proportion of fathers use no parental leave, even when they are earmarked for the father. In this study, we focus on the proportion and characteristics of non-users, that is, fathers who do not use parental leave. We distinguish two non-user groups: fathers who use no parental leave, not even birth-related leave and fathers who do not use the father’s quota. This distinction is relevant because it reflects the design and institutional status of fathers’ parental leave. Further, factors related to using no parental leave are likely to be somewhat different to those related to not using the father’s quota. In Finland, the father’s quota was introduced in 2003, but it became fully independent leave for the father only in 2013. We also investigate if the 2013 reform was followed by any changes in fathers’ parental leave use and in the profiles of non-users. We use a unique longitudinal register data that covers practically (fathers to) all children born in 2010–2015 and follow parental leave use until 2018. We find that the 2013 reform was followed by a considerable increase in the uptake of the father’s quota. The proportion of fathers who used no parental leave remained stable, but the reform encouraged some fathers to take longer, independent leave in addition to the birth-related leave. Overall, less educated and low-income fathers were less likely to use any parental leave, and if they took leave, they were more likely to use only the birth-related leave. However, the 2013 reform slightly diminished socioeconomic disparities in the use of the father’s quota.

Child Development Knowledge and Father Engagement: The Mediating Role of Parenting Self-efficacy

Early father engagement is associated with numerous positive child outcomes including cognitive development, emotional regulation, and fewer problem behaviors. Various fathering programs attempt to encourage father engagement through teaching fathers about young children’s development and needs. This study examined 181 low-income fathers’ child development knowledge (self-perceived and objective) as predictors of father engagement (verbal stimulation, caregiving, and physical play) with infants. Additionally, parenting self-efficacy (PSE) was examined as a mediator. Results revealed that fathers’ self-perceived child development knowledge positively predicted engagement with infants (verbal stimulation and caregiving), but objective knowledge did not. PSE did not mediate the relationship between self-perceived knowledge and father engagement. These findings yield important implications for fathering research and interventions, suggesting that it may be particularly beneficial to increase fathers’ confidence in their ability to understand and meet their child’s needs rather than exclusively focusing on improving fathers’ knowledge of child development.

Associations between Fathers’ Prebirth Pregnancy Intentions and Involvement with Their Child 15 Months Later: A Propensity Score Analysis

Objective: This study examined whether fathers’ prebirth pregnancy intentions were associated with fathers’ involvement with his child 15 months later. Method: Propensity score matching was used to assess the effects of fathers’ pregnancy intentions (self-reported before the birth of the child) on three measures of father involvement (residency with child, engagement in caregiving activities, and engagement in social cognitive play) in a large sample of young, diverse, and low-income fathers ( N = 2,008). Results: In this sample matched on sociodemographic and interpersonal factors, fathers reporting an intended pregnancy had significantly higher levels of social and cognitive play with their child, compared to fathers reporting an unintended pregnancy. However, intentions were not significantly associated with fathers’ residency with child or caregiving activities. Conclusion: Results suggest that fathers’ pregnancy intentions are predictive of certain types of father involvement and emphasize the importance of controlling for factors associated with both fathers’ intentions and involvement.

Associations between depression and parenting of fathers in Head Start and parental self-efficacy as a protective factor

• Prevalence of depression among fathers in Early Head Start/Head Start programs. • Fathers’ depression weakens relationship closeness with their children. • Depression increases relationship conflicts with their children. • Parental self-efficacy mitigates the influence of depression. • Improving fathers’ parental self-efficacy is important in early childhood services. Head Start/Early Head Start (HS/EHS) programs deliver comprehensive early childhood services in the U.S. to support low-income families to improve a range of early childhood outcomes and to develop positive parenting and parent-child relationships. From the beginning of the program, increasing fathers’ involvement with their children in HS/EHS has been an important emphasis. However, depressive symptoms among low-income fathers can negatively impact their relationships with their children. Protective factors such as parental self-efficacy (PSE) can potentially buffer the effects of depression. In this study, we aimed to understand the associations between low-income HS/EHS fathers’ depressive symptoms and relationship closeness and conflict with their young children aged 5 and below. We also examined if the PSE of fathers can buffer the negative associations between depression and father-child relationship. We analyzed cross-sectional data collected from fathers ( n = 102) who participated in a parenting support program while receiving HS/EHS services in the United States. Participants were primarily African American (83%), of mean age 32 years, and lived with their children (74%). Using multiple linear regression, we found that fathers’ depression was significantly associated with father-child closeness ( B = −0.37, p < .001) and conflict ( B = 0.28, p < . 05). More importantly, PSE functioned as a protective factor by reducing the negative associations between depression and fathers’ relationship closeness and conflict with their children. Implications include providing mental health assessments and support to low-income fathers. HS/EHS services or early childhood services that aim to promote positive parenting practices and develop healthy parent-child relationships among low-income fathers should give attention to strengthening PSE in fathers.

Mobile Applications for Low-Income U.S. Fathers: A Systematic Review of Content, Comprehensiveness and User Ratings

Low-income fathers are likely to drop out of parenting service provision, as access and retention in services remain barriers to parenting education. To boost access to evidence-based parenting information, one potential solution is mobile-based parenting apps. The purpose of this systematic review was to evaluate whether currently available parenting apps in both Google Play and iOS stores contain content for low-income fathers, with specific focus on whether apps are consistent with self-efficacy theory and evidence-based factors associated with father engagement. Utilizing systematic review procedures of search, screening and coding, apps were analyzed for content comprehensiveness and user ratings and evaluated based on theoretical dimensions of paternal self-efficacy and evidence-based factors associated with low-income father engagement. Of the 1,582 apps identified, 65 were included in the review. Of these apps, only one (1.5%) specifically targeted fathers, with the remaining apps (98.5%; n = 64) targeting both mothers and fathers. Results indicate that apps contained limited evidence-based content targeted for low-income fathers. User rating scores were associated with app content related to parenting stress (β = .540, p = .005) and co-parenting (β = −.552, p = .001). Implications include a need for more evidence-based content tailored to low-income fathers.

“It shakes you for the rest of your life”: Low-income fathers’ understanding of domestic violence and its impact on children.

“It shakes you for the rest of your life”: Low-income fathers’ understanding of domestic violence and its impact on children.

Do Low-Income Noncustodial Fathers Trade Families? Economic Contributions to Children in Multiple Families

AbstractLittle research exists on the contributions that noncustodial fathers make to children they have had in different families. We use baseline survey data from an intervention for noncustodial...