Lowest Income Category Research Articles

Relationships Between Household Income and Functional Independent Behavior for Children With Autism.

Children in lower income households are less likely to be diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and diagnosis is often delayed. Lack of or delayed identification of ASD minimizes a child's ability to receive effective early intervention services that support development of functional independence skills. Research has yet to identify relationships between functional independence and household income for children with ASD. A cross-sectional national survey with 231 caregivers of children with autism aged 2-12 years was conducted. Caregivers completed a 90-min survey examining family demographics, intervention services, autism symptom severity, and children's functional behavioral outcomes. Significant differences in functional independence behavior scores were identified for children from the highest and lowest income categories when controlling for autism symptom severity, age of diagnosis, and receipt of intervention services. This study provides preliminary evidence to support the association between income and functional independent behavior for children with ASD.

Perceived Trust of E-Services, Perceived Usefulness and Adoption of E-Banking amongst the Students of University of Kelaniya: A Relational Study

This study examines the relationship of perceived usefulness and perceived trust of e-services on adopting e-banking in the context of Sri Lankan private commercial banks. Sample was drawn from the students of University of Kelaniya, those who are possessing e-banking facilities of private banks. Initially 500 questionnaires were distributed and 305 duly completed questionnaires were considered for the final data analysis process. Governing factors on perceived trust of e-services were identified by conducting principal component analysis. TAM has been extended by using the perceived trust of e-services. In order to test the hypotheses, correlation analysis followed by multiple regression analysis using hierarchical method along with diagnosis tests for outliers, residuals, influential cases, were performed whilst supplementary statistical tests, such as trend analysis and contrast test of ANOVA were also used for further analysis of demographic characteristics with special reference to respondents’ income levels. The empirical evidence supported two hypotheses indicating the positive relationships of perceived trust of e-services and perceived usefulness variables towards e-banking adoption. Furthermore, it was revealed that there are differences in adoption of e-banking with regard to several demographic variables. Third hypothesis stating the existence of differences in adoption of e-banking between lower income category customers and higher income category was also supported. Restricted sample selection and time restrictions are limitations. Nevertheless, extending of TAM in relation to present research context could be noted as the originality of the research. Findings would be beneficial for Sri Lankan bankers and banking application developers, alike. In conclusion, future research could be conducted in varied contexts in the field of technology adoption in search of novel findings.

Home ownership, income and oral health of children in Australia-A population-based study.

Income inequalities in children's oral health have been well described. It is plausible that the security of tenure reflected by the ownership status of children's housing dynamically interacts with household income to shape these inequalities. We examined whether housing tenure modifies the known association between household income and oral health. Data were analysed on 3344 10- to 11-year-old children from the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children. Multivariable regression models tested associations between household income and dental caries and tooth loss due to caries. Effect modification by home ownership (yes/no) was tested on the additive and multiplicative scales. Models were adjusted for sex, Indigenous status, main language spoken at home, area of residence, main carer education and family arrangement. Children in households in the low income group had worse oral health than children in the high group for caries and tooth loss. Models only weakly supported an additive interaction for tooth loss; that is, the relative excess risk due to interaction (RERI) for low household income was -0.903 (-2.38; 0.571) for tooth loss and -0.076 (-0.42; 0.271) for dental decay, although we note that the low proportion of children from low-income homeowning households (6%) reduces the power to detect interactions. Notably, our models suggest renters in both high- and low-income categories had the highest risk of tooth loss compared to owners (PR for high-income renters: 2.19 (95% CI: 1.25, 3.85); PR for low-income renters: 2.11 (95% CI: 1.42, 3.16)). Our study confirms that children in low-income households have poorer oral health outcomes than their high-income counterparts. Our findings additionally suggest that children in rental households may fare the worst of all housing and income combinations considered. Improving the security of housing for families privately renting may have wider health benefits that currently acknowledged.

Estimation of the Components of Residential Solid Waste in Baqubah City and their Generation Rate

Municipal solid waste is of variable, non-uniform inconsistent nature and the method by which the sample to acquire is decisive if the results are to be reliable. For data collection, an integrated methodological approach was introduced, including field investigation, questionnaire survey, and personal interviews, which were employed to estimate the rate of waste production and physical composition at the source of generation. Samples were collected from different socio-economic clusters (socio-income level). According to the results of the preliminary survey for 99% confidence interval and 10% standard error, the optimum sample size was 105 households, in Baqubah City in Diyala Governorate by implementation a completely random block design for sampling. Up to 105 units were sampled which were allocated to high, middle, and low-income socio-economic categories, yielding an average of 650 kg of waste collected daily for one week. It is concluded that Baqubah city has an average generation rate of 0.56 kg/ person/ day which is lower in the high-economic level zone in the city than in the other zones. Among the total waste generated in the city, 68% is food waste, 5.2% paper waste,7.4% plastic waste, 5.8% metal, 2.3% glass waste,3.1% textile waste, while the remaining percentages represent miscellaneous combustible and noncombustible materials.

Determinants of food insecurity among elderly people: findings from the Canadian Community Health Survey

AbstractFood insecurity among elderly people is a major public health concern due to its association with several health conditions. Despite growing research and implementation of diverse income-based policy measures, food insecurity among elderly people remains a major policy issue in Canada. Additional research could inform food policy beyond strategies that target improving the financial resources of elderly people. Drawing data from the Canadian Community Health Survey (N = 24,930), we explored the correlates of food insecurity among older adults using negative log-log logistic regression techniques. Our findings show that certain categories of elderly people are more prone to food insecurity. These segments include seniors who are visible minorities (OR = 1.29, p < 0.01), live alone (OR = 1.13, p < 0.05), have a very weak sense of community belonging (OR = 1.40, p < 0.001), in poor physical health (OR = 1.20, p < 0.01), and those in lower age and income categories. These findings corroborate previous studies that demonstrate that food insecurity among elderly people is a complex phenomenon influenced by diverse socio-economic factors. In Canada, food security policies targeted at elderly people have largely prioritised poverty alleviation through income support programmes. While these programmes can improve the purchasing power of elderly people, they may not be sufficient in ensuring food security. There is a need to embrace and further investigate an integrated approach that pays attention to other contextual socio-economic dynamics.

Economic crisis in mass representations of Russians

During the post-Soviet period, Russians have experienced several economic crises, which have become a prism for assessing the political situation in the country and the direction of its development. In this article, based on mass polls data by the Public Opinion Foundation (FOM) and Russian Public Opinion Research Center (VCIOM) in 2019-2020, the author has reconstructed public perceptions of the economic crisis, identified the groups more inclined to admit the crisis in the country, described adaptive mechanisms they used, and assessed if the feeling of crisis affect the public trust in political institutions. A quantitative textual analysis of the open entry responses concerning the characteristics of the economic crisis shows that it is consistently associated with the gap between available and desired levels of consumption and economic security, rather than a sharp decline in macroeconomic indicators. Rising prices, low living standards and low wages are the most frequent indicators of the crisis in the responses. Respondents in the low-income categories and younger cohorts are the most susceptible to the crisis. Adaptation mechanisms had already begun to form on the eve of the main wave of the pandemic in March 2020, but the increased level of uncertainty about the future determined the demand for trustful information on the state of affairs in the economy. The study also shows that the feeling of crisis is associated with the decreased distrust of governmental bodies. In general, the work demonstrates the importance of studying subjective assessments of well-being and their role in structuring information about processes in politics and economy.

An Examination of the Perceived Impact of Medicaid Expansion on United States of America’s Economy

Health disparities is a major concern to policymakers across the 50 states of USA. At the same time access to affordable healthcare is a major challenge and very political in the country. Despite the health disparity challenge little is known about how lack of access to affordable care has contributed to health disparity. As a result, this particular study has utilized descriptive study, available data, and literature to address the little gap. The analysis of this study has shown that Medicaid together with the ACA have played a major role in the reduction of the number of people without health insurance coverage in the United States. Therefore, further expansion of the ACA and the Medicaid insurance program will go a long way to expand the impact of the ACA in addressing the obvious health disparity that the country is battling with in the midst of this Covid-19 pandemic. It has also been observed in the literature that the passage of the ACA broke the political deadlock that long thwarted the national progress toward equitable, quality, universal, affordable health care. Again, it was further observed that the ACA and the expansion of Medicaid are perceived to extend coverage for the uninsured individuals who are unduly under the low-income category and people of color, edges health insurance mishandlings, and ensures improvements in the quality of care. Given the above narratives and significance of the expansion of the ACA and Medicaid health insurance policy, it is more prudent for all the 50-states across the United States of America to adopt and expand ACA and Medicaid policy in order to reduce health disparity and also ensures economic growth and development. Keywords: Medicaid, Health-Disparity, Development, Growth, ACA, Policy, Economy DOI: 10.7176/PPAR/11-1-04 Publication date: January 31 st 2021

Impact of Covid-19 on Bottom of the Pyramid Population – An Empirical Study

The Covid-19 pandemic has triggered a lot of studies on its impact, the way in which countries managed or coped with the issues arising out of the pandemic, and so on. While countries had several lessons to learn in terms of speed and thrust on leapfrogging digital capabilities and also creating a super-fast crisis access team in health considering the intensity and surge in numbers that needed critical care globally, the fact of the matter is that it is the low income category of the population of every country that had to suffer the most hardships. In this paper, the researchers study a set of this base of the pyramid population through a mixed approach, to understand the severity and impact that the pandemic and its associated restrictions and government measures had on the population.

AN EVALUATION ON OUTCOME OF OIL PALM REPLANTING SCHEME (TSSPK) AND NEW PLANTING SCHEME (TBSPK)

The Oil Palm Assistance Scheme for Replanting (TSSPK) and the New Planting (TBSPK) for Independent Smallholders (ISH) were inaugurated in 2011 as part of the 10th Malaysia Plan. It is a subset of the National Key Economic Area (NKEA) Oil Palm Commodities Entry Point Project 1 (EPP1). Among the assistance included in these schemes are the high-quality seedlings, agricultural inputs such as fertilisers and pesticides along with the cash fund for land preparation and cultivation of the seedlings. The smallholders who participated in these schemes were also given extension services by the MPOB extension agent (TUNAS) on various aspects of oil palm management. A total of 382 participants were involved and responded to the survey. The proportion of respondents are from Sabah (38.5%), Sarawak (38%), and Johor (23.6%). The study found that the average age of the participants mostly is 60 years old and above (40.1%), and 57.4% of participants were the owner of the oil palm plantation. The range of fresh fruit bunch (FFB) production harvested for the first and second year is between 0 - 4.6t/ha/year, which is slightly low due to the El Nino occurrence in 2016. A profit in income was recorded from the FFB sales after participating in the scheme. The low-income category recorded a decrease of 30.11% while the higher income category showed an increased between 2.66% to 16.59% after they joined the schemes. Some participants also implemented the integrated cash crops alongside the oil palm to generate income while waiting for the immature oil palm to produce yield. This study shows that most of the respondents complied with the Good Agriculture Practice (GAP) after joining the scheme. Most of the participants were pleased with the implementation of the schemes and services done by the TUNAS Officers and gave them an excellent rating. Several improvements are suggested such as agriculture input distribution, clustering the smallholders into cooperatives, continuity of GAP implementation, and comprehensive research in the future.

Does quality of electricity matter? Household-level evidence from the Philippines

The Philippines is a country that faces many development challenges, including providing reliable and good quality electricity. Access to good quality electricity connection matters because it affects many aspects that increase productivity (e.g. education, health and business) and can make lives easier and more comfortable. While access has improved over time, many households still suffer from poor quality of their connection brought about by incidents of power outages, fluctuations and low voltage. This article attempts to examine whether better electricity quality improves household welfare. We apply a two-stage probit-ordered probit model to overcome endogeneity caused by reverse causation between electricity quality and household income. We find that households experiencing better electricity quality decrease the probability of remaining in the lowest income category by 23%.

Trends in Birth Rates After Elimination of Cost Sharing for Contraception by the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act

Reducing out-of-pocket costs is associated with improved patterns of contraception use. It is unknown whether reducing out-of-pocket costs is associated with fewer births. To evaluate changes in birth rates by income level among commercially insured women before (2008-2013) and after (2014-2018) the elimination of cost sharing for contraception under the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA). This cross-sectional study used data from Clinformatics Data Mart database from January 1, 2008, to December 31, 2018, for women aged 15 to 45 years who were enrolled in an employer-based health plan and had pregnancy benefits for at least 1 year. Women without household income information and women with evidence of having undergone a hysterectomy were excluded. Section 2713 of the ACA. The primary outcome was the proportion of reproductive-aged women with a live birth by year (measured yearly from 2008 to 2018 [11 time points]) within 3 income categories. The secondary outcome was the distribution of contraceptive method fills in 3 categories by year: (1) most effective methods (long-acting reversible contraception or sterilization), (2) moderately effective methods (pill, patch, ring, and injectable), and (3) no prescription or surgical method. The analytic sample included 4 590 989 women (mean [SD] age; 30.8 [9.1] years in 2013; 3 069 053 White [66.9%]) enrolled in 47 721 health plans. A total of 500 898 participants (40.8%) resided in households with incomes less than 400% of the federal poverty level in 2013. In all 3 years (2008, 2013, and 2018), women in the lowest income category were younger than women in the other income groups (median range, 21-22 years vs 30-34 years) and in households with a higher median number of dependents (9-10 vs 2-4). There was an associated decrease in births in all income groups in the period after the elimination of out-of-pocket costs. The estimated probability of birth decreased most precipitously among women in the lowest income group from 8.0% (95% CI, 7.4%-8.5%) in 2014 to 6.2% (95% CI, 5.7%-6.7%) in 2018, representing a 22.2% decrease (P < .001). The estimated probability decreased in the middle income group by 9.4%, from 6.4% (95% CI, 6.3%-6.4%) to 5.8% (95% CI, 5.7%-5.8%) (P < .001), and in the highest income group by 1.8%, from 5.6% (95% CI, 5.6%-5.7%) to 5.5% (95% CI, 5.4%-5.5%) (P < .001) in the period after the elimination of cost sharing. In this cross-sectional study, the elimination of cost sharing for contraception under the ACA was associated with improvements in contraceptive method prescription fills and a decrease in births among commercially insured women. Women with low income had more precipitous decreases than women with higher income, suggesting that enhanced access to contraception may address well-documented income-related disparities in unintended birth rates.

Changes in Psychological Distress During the COVID-19 Pandemic in Japan: A Longitudinal Study.

BackgroundThis longitudinal study aimed to examine the changes in psychological distress of the general public from the early to community-transmission phases of the COVID-19 pandemic and to investigate the factors related to these changes.MethodsAn internet-based survey of 2,400 Japanese people was conducted in two phases: early phase (baseline survey: February 25–27, 2020) and community-transmission phase (follow-up survey: April 1–6, 2020). The presence of severe psychological distress (SPD) was measured using the Kessler’s Six-scale Psychological Distress Scale. The difference of SPD percentages between the two phases was examined. Mixed-effects ordinal logistic regression analysis was performed to assess the factors associated with the change of SPD status between the two phases.ResultsSurveys for both phases had 2,078 valid respondents (49.3% men; average age, 50.3 years). In the two surveys, individuals with SPD were 9.3% and 11.3%, respectively, demonstrating a significant increase between the two phases (P = 0.005). Significantly higher likelihood to develop SPD were observed among those in lower (ie, 18,600–37,200 United States dollars [USD], odds ratio [OR] 1.95; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.10–3.46) and the lowest income category (ie, <18,600 USD, OR 2.12; 95% CI, 1.16–3.86). Furthermore, those with respiratory diseases were more likely to develop SPD (OR 2.56; 95% CI, 1.51–4.34).ConclusionsFrom the early to community-transmission phases of COVID-19, psychological distress increased among the Japanese. Recommendations include implementing mental health measures together with protective measures against COVID-19 infection, prioritizing low-income people and those with underlying diseases.

Racial-ethnic differences in prevalence of social determinants of health and social risks among middle-aged and older adults in a Northern California health plan.

BackgroundSocial determinants of health (SDoHs) and social risks (SRs) have been associated with adverse health and healthcare utilization and racial/ethnic disparities. However, there is limited information about the prevalence of SRs in non-“safety net” adult populations and how SRs differ by race/ethnicity, age, education, and income.MethodsWe analyzed weighted survey data for 16,247 White, 1861 Black, 2895 Latino, 1554 Filipino, and 1289 Chinese adults aged 35 to 79 who responded to the 2011 or 2014/2015 Kaiser Permanente Northern California Member Health Survey. We compared age-standardized prevalence estimates of SDoHs (education, household income, marital status) and SRs (financial worry, cost-related reduced medication use and fruit/vegetable consumption, chronic stress, harassment/discrimination, health-related beliefs) across racial/ethnic groups for ages 35 to 64 and 65 to 79.ResultsSDoHs and SRs differed by race/ethnicity and age group, and SRs differed by levels of education and income. In both age groups, Blacks, Latinos, and Filipinos were more likely than Whites to be in the lower income category and be worried about their financial situation. Compared to Whites, cost-related reduced medication use was higher among Blacks, and cost-related reduced fruit/vegetable consumption was higher among Blacks and Latinos. Younger adults were more likely than older adults to experience chronic stress and financial worry. Racial/ethnic disparities in income were observed within similar levels of education. Differences in prevalence of SRs by levels of education and income were wider within than across racial/ethnic groups.ConclusionsIn this non-“safety net” adult health plan population, Blacks, Latinos, and Filipinos had a higher prevalence of social risks than Whites and Chinese, and prevalence of social risks differed by age group. Our results support the assessment and EHR documentation of SDoHs and social risks and use of this information to understand and address drivers of racial/ethnic disparities in health and healthcare use.

Socio-Demographic and Nutritional Status Correlates in Pulmonary Tuberculosis Patients in Calabar, Nigeria

Introduction: Tuberculosis (TB) continues to rank high in contributing to the global disability adjusted life years with 10 million new cases yearly worldwide. Having effective control of TB particularly in endemic communities should be predicated on understanding factors that drive its upsurge.&#x0D; Objectives: This study assessed the association between socio-demographic factors and nutritional status among adults with pulmonary TB in Calabar, Nigeria.&#x0D; Methods: A descriptive analysis of a randomized controlled study that enrolled 81 clinically diagnosed pulmonary TB patients that met the eligibility criteria. Data assessed were, socio-demographic, clinical, dietary, anthropometric, haematological and serum concentration of micronutrients. Results were presented in frequencies, percentages, tables and chart. Chi-square (ꭕ2) test was used to determine existence of associations between variables at 5% level, while, Pearson Correlation test was applied to determine the correlation between variables. P-value was used to determine significance of tests.&#x0D; Results: Using body mass index (BMI) as a proxy of nutritional status, results indicate that 33.4% of patients were undernourished with no discernible gender differences (p=0.254). Income level classification was observed to be statistically significantly associated with undernutrition (p=0.021), with those in the low-income category most at risk. Correlation analysis of key variables indicated that low serum ascorbate, zinc and retinol were independently associated with low BMI. These associations were statistically significant (p&lt;0.05).Singleness was identified as a risk factor for undernutrition (p=0.060). Low functional status proxied by Karnofsky score &lt;50% tended to align more with patients in the low income level category.&#x0D; Conclusion: Results consistently indicate that patients in the low income category had higher proportion of lower ranges of haemoglobin, protein parameters, serum ascorbate, zinc and retinol concentrations considered deficient. Thus, poverty alleviation strategies should be highly prioritized in TB programming for effective control.

Assessing the Participation of Indigenous Santals People in Chapainawabganj District of Bangladesh in Income Generating Activities

The study was conducted to determine the participation of indigenous people in different income generating activities (IGAs) and identify their problems. The study focused especially the Santal (an indigenous community of Bangladesh) peoples living in Chapainawabganj district. A pre-structured questionnaire was used to collect data through face to face interview from randomly selected sample size of 120 respondents. The Santals did not have recognizable access to education and income generating activities (IGAs). The main findings indicate that, most of the respondents were in between 29-50 years of age. About 60% of the respondents were illiterate with 80% belonged to medium sized family which consist of 4 to 6 members. Agriculture is the main occupation among of the respondents. Among them, only 3.33% people are involved with Government services. Most of the people are found without own land although they continue their livelihood mostly by crop production, livestock rearing, fish culture and day laboring. They take lease of cultivable land from others. The respondents had an average annual family income of about 71429BDT whereas about 80% of the respondents were under low income category. Lack of money was found the most important problem in the study area according to Focus Group Discussion (FGD). IGAs improved the overall livelihood status of the Santals in the study area.&#x0D; The Agriculturists 2020; 18(1) 137-143

The Impact of Tourism Development on Economic Growth in Sub-Saharan Africa

This study examines the dynamic impact of tourism development on economic growth in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) using the Generalised Method of Moments and data covering the period from 2002 to 2018. The increasingly important role of tourism and the limelight the tourism sector has been enjoying of late, on the one hand, and on the other, the lack of sufficient coverage of tourism-growth nexus studies in Africa in general and in SSA in particular, motivated this study. Unlike most of the known panel data-based studies on tourism development and economic growth, this study has split the sub-Saharan African countries into low-income and middle-income categories. The results of the study show that tourism expenditure negatively affects economic growth, while tourism receipts have the opposite effect in SSA. The findings are robust to the low-income sub-sample, while only the effect of tourism expenditure is robust in the middle-income sub-sample.

Rural-Urban Geographical Disparities in Hepatocellular Carcinoma Incidence Among US Adults, 2004-2017.

To evaluate impact of urbanicity and household income on hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) incidence among US adults. HCC incidence was evaluated by rural-urban geography and median annual household income using 2004-2017 Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results data. Although overall HCC incidence was highest in large metropolitan regions, average annual percent change in HCC incidence was greatest among more rural regions. Individuals in lower income categories had highest HCC incidence and greatest average annual percent change in HCC incidence. Disparities in HCC incidence by urbanicity and income likely reflect differences in risk factors, health-related behaviors, and barriers in access to healthcare services.

Does motivational interviewing contribute to caries prevention in children from lower income families?

Aim To investigate the differential preventive effect of motivational interviewing on early childhood caries according to socioeconomic variables in a primary healthcare setting. Trial design Randomised, double-blind trial with two parallel groups, based in a community setting.Study population Selected from an invited subgroup of children born in 2013 and 2014 in the northern area of the city of Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, BrazilInterventions Primary caregivers of the patients were randomised to receive information about breastfeeding, child nutrition and oral hygiene during an initial dental appointment in the patient's first year of life either by conventional delivery techniques or by motivational interviewing.Outcomes Analysis of dmfs index from clinical examinationResults Nine-hundred and fifteen patients were randomised to the two arms and 414 children were included in the study, with 501 lost to follow up. One-hundred and eighty-six received conventional health education, and 228 received motivational interviewing. The caries rate per 100 surface year was 1.29 for the conventional education group, and 0.46 for the motivational interviewing group. The effect of motivational interviewing was statistically significant in the lower-income category with prevention of 57% of carious lesions. There was no such statistically significant difference in the higher income subjects.Conclusions The outcome showed reduced caries experience by children where their primary caregiver has received preventative advice via a motivational interviewing technique when compared to conventional education methods. This study suggests that motivational interviewing is more effective in more disadvantaged groups.

Socio-demographic differences in alcohol-related work impairment.

The costs of alcohol-related presenteeism (being at work in an impaired state due to alcohol use) have been estimated as substantially larger than the costs of alcohol-related absenteeism. Past studies indicate that employees with lower socio-economic status experience more alcohol-attributable problems than employees in higher socio-economic strata. We aimed to estimate the prevalence of alcohol-related presenteeism among Norwegian adults and its association with sex, age, income and education. Annual national cross-sectional telephone surveys on alcohol, tobacco and drug use (2016-19) among Norwegian adults. A total of 5430 full- and part-time employees aged 16-79years; 53% were men. The main outcome was self-reported 12-month occurrence of work impairment due to alcohol use the previous day. Main predictors were income and education obtained from national registries, age and gender. A secondary outcome variable was self-reported alcohol-related absenteeism. The 12-month prevalence of alcohol-related work impairment was 8.7%, 95% confidence interval (CI)=7.9, 9.4. Adjusted risk ratios (RR) indicated a higher risk for men compared with women (RR=1.26, 95% CI=1.06, 1.50) and higher risk for young employees (e.g. less than 26years compared with 55+, RR=7.64, 95% CI=4.88, 11.95). The risk increased as a function of higher education (in order of increasing education, RR=1.12, 95% CI=0.87, 1.45; RR=1.64, 95% CI=1.26, 2.12; RR=2.19, 95% CI=1.63, 2.95). The risk was estimated as lower in the middle-income categories compared with the lowest (RR=0.76, 95% CI=0.58, 1.00, RR=0.89, 95% CI=0.66, 1.20, RR=0.94, 95% CI=0.68, 1.29) and higher for employees with the highest income (RR=1.04, 95% CI=0.73, 1.48; RR=1.47, 95% CI=1.09, 2.00). In Norway, the risk of alcohol-related work impairment for employees in the highest education category is approximately twice that of employees with secondary education or less. Except for employees in the lowest income category, who had a higher risk than those in the middle-income categories, higher income is associated with increased risk of work impairment. Being younger and male are also associated with increased risk of alcohol-related work impairment.

ANÁLISE COMPARATIVA DA VIABILIDADE DE ADESÃO DA TARIFA BRANCA PARA SUBGRUPOS DE CONSUMIDORES B1, B2 E B3 DE ENERGIA ELÉTRICA

In many parts of the world, the concerns with the supply of electricity and the consequences regarding environmental issues related with greenhouse gas emissions have arouse the adoption of governmental policies which encourage a foreseen increase of renewable energy sources. As a result, renewable energy sources have shown a fast growth in production of electricity, by 2,8% a year between 2010 and 2040. After the renewable generation, Natural Gas and Nuclear Energy will be sources of fast growth. Once electric systems are always subject to possible contingents, it is of pivotal importance that they are capable of operating in a way of providing the highest reliability level desired by consumers of electricity. Within this context, the aim of this work is to present the regulatory structure and accession technical to the white fare. Bibliographic research and case study techniques were used to simulate consumer load curves classified in group B, subgroup B1, B2 and B3 with the exception of the low income and SMC category. The research establishes the comparison of white fare and conventional tariffs, seeking to situate the feasibility of choosing the current tariffs. Finally, the work presents the energy consumption behavior of each subgroup of group B, the consumer modulation capacity and the application of the tariff to residential and commercial consumers, in order to get the economic comparative analyzes already exposed. In a more in-depth analysis of the results, it appears that if consumers practiced really effective load modulation, only the discounts offered are not enough to choose their daily routine. Keywords – Tariff Flags. Energy consumption. Energy efficiency.