Low-income African American Children Research Articles

Obesity and Sugar‐sweetened Beverages in African‐American Preschool Children: A Longitudinal Study

A representative sample of 365 low-income African-American preschool children aged 3-5 years was studied to determine the association between sugar-sweetened beverage consumption (soda, fruit drinks, and both combined) and overweight and obesity. Children were examined at a dental clinic in 2002-2003 and again after 2 years. Dietary information was collected using the Block Kids Food Frequency Questionnaire. A BMI score was computed from recorded height and weight. Overweight and obesity were defined by national reference age-sex specific BMI: those with an age-sex specific BMI>or=85th, but <95th percentile as overweight and those with BMI>or=95th age-sex specific percentile as obese. The prevalence of overweight was 12.9% in baseline, and increased to 18.7% after 2 years. The prevalence of obesity increased from 10.3 to 20.4% during the same period. Baseline intake of soda and all sugar-sweetened beverages were positively associated with baseline BMI z-scores. After adjusting for covariates, additional intake of fruit drinks and all sugar-sweetened beverages at baseline showed significantly higher odds of incidence of overweight over 2 years. Among a longitudinal cohort of African-American preschool children, high consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages was significantly associated with an increased risk for obesity.

Effects of exposure to community violence on school functioning: The mediating role of posttraumatic stress symptoms

This study investigated the association between exposure to community violence (ECV) and school functioning, as well as posttraumatic stress (PTS) symptoms as a potential mediator of the relationship. PTS symptoms are commonly associated with ECV, and are characterized by difficulty regulating emotions and behaviors. Thus, PTS symptomatology may be one mechanism through which community violence impacts school functioning. The community-based sample included 47 low-income African American children (aged 10–13). Results revealed that ECV was inversely related to academic performance and attendance. Symptoms of posttraumatic stress emerged as a mediator of the relation between ECV and academic performance. Results have implications for urban students who face violence in their communities, and emphasize the need for school-based mental health services.

Cariogenicity of Soft Drinks, Milk and Fruit Juice in Low-Income African-American Children: A Longitudinal Study

The authors conducted a study to test the hypothesis that high consumption of soft drinks, relative to milk and 100 percent fruit juice, is a risk factor for dental caries in low-income African-American children in Detroit. Trained dentists and interviewers examined a representative sample of 369 children, aged 3 to 5 years, in 2002-2003 and again two years later. The authors used the 2000 Block Kids Food Frequency Questionnaire (NutritionQuest, Berkeley, Calif.) to collect dietary information. They assessed caries by using the International Caries Detection and Assessment System. Soft drinks, 100 percent fruit juice and milk represented the sugared beverages consumed by the cohort. A cluster analysis of the relative proportion of each drink at baseline and follow-up revealed four consumption patterns. Using zero-inflated negative binomial models, the authors found that children who changed from being low consumers of soft drinks at baseline to high consumers after two years had a 1.75 times higher mean number of new decayed, missing and filled tooth surfaces compared with low consumers of soft drinks at both time points. Children who consumed more soft drinks, relative to milk and 100 percent fruit juice, as they grew older were at a greater risk of developing dental caries. Health promotion programs and health care providers should emphasize to patients and caregivers the caries risk associated with consumption of soft drinks.

A Desire to Learn: African American Children's Positive Attitudes toward Learning within School Cultures of Low Expectations

Background Scholars are bringing much-needed attention to the persistent problem of academic underachievement among African American children in the United States, who continue to lag behind White school children in all socioeconomic groups. This is especially true of impoverished African Americans. Although some link these outcomes to poor student attitudes, recent scholarship casts doubt on the prevalence and significance of the role of adversarial attitudes on school outcomes. In addition, most of the extant research of student attitudes among African American students reflects research with middle school and high school students. We know little about the attitudes of elementary-age African American children living in low-income neighborhoods. Focus of Study This qualitative study aims to address this gap in our knowledge by examining whether oppositional attitudes toward learning prevail among African American children attending two low-income urban elementary schools in California. We also examine how what African American children say they want in teachers relates to what we document as good teaching. Research Design This study used a qualitative design that included face-to-face interviews with children, participant observation in the school and after-school labs, and videotape of classroom interactions in after-school sites. We helped establish the after-school sites as pedagogical laboratories designed to examine how less skilled teachers learn to improve their practice and how children learn with an exemplary teacher. Data Analysis We content-analyzed interview data to examine how children defined and described effective and ineffective teaching. We also used content analysis of participant observations to assess school climate and institutional culture. We developed a code manual to content-analyze videotaped lab data to identify characteristics of the after-school lab that supported positive and productive classroom behaviors in the students. Conclusions We conclude that low-come urban children do want to learn, regardless of their actual demonstrated ability levels, and they appear to be resilient in this respect. We found that elementary school-age low-income African American children are aware of strengths and deficiencies in their teachers and can name each explicitly. Even within controlling or negative school environments that reflect a pervasive culture of low expectations, they overwhelmingly expressed a desire for teachers who treated them well, helped them learn, and who were fair and caring toward them. Moreover, given the opportunity to work with a teacher who worked with them in ways consistent with what they looked for in good teachers, the children in our study responded with productive classroom behaviors.

Empirically Derived Subtypes of Child Academic and Behavior Problems: Co-Occurrence and Distal Outcomes

The aim of this study was to identify classes of children at entry into first grade with different patterns of academic and behavior problems. A latent class analysis was conducted with a longitudinal community sample of 678 predominantly low-income African American children. Results identified multiple subclasses of children, including a class with co-occurring academic and behavior problems. Gender differences were found in relation to the number of identified classes and the characteristics of academic and behavior problems for children. Several of the identified classes, particularly the co-occurring academic and behavior problems subclass for both genders, predicted negative long-term outcomes in sixth grade, including academic failure, receipt of special education services, affiliation with deviant peers, suspension from school, and elevated risk for conduct problems. The finding that subclasses of academic and behavior problems predict negative long-term outcomes validates the importance of the identified classes and the need to target interventions for children presenting with the associated class characteristics. Implications for early identification, prevention, and intervention for children at risk for academic failure and disruptive behavior problems are discussed.

Portion size effects on daily energy intake in low-income Hispanic and African American children and their mothers

Portion size influences children's energy intakes at meals, but effects on daily intake are unknown. Effects of large portions on daily energy intake were tested in 5-y-old Hispanic and African American children from low-income families. Maternal food intake data were collected to evaluate familial susceptibility to portion size. A within-subjects experimental design with reference and large portion sizes was used in a study of 59 low-income Hispanic and African American preschool-aged children and their mothers. The portion size of 3 entrées (lunch, dinner, and breakfast) and an afternoon snack served during a 24-h period were of a reference size in one condition and doubled in the other condition. Portion sizes of other foods and beverages did not vary across conditions. Weighed food intake, anthropometric measures, and self-reported data were obtained. Doubling the portion size of several entrées and a snack served during a 24-h period increased energy intake from those foods by 23% (180 kcal) among children (P < 0.0001) and by 21% (270 kcal) among mothers (P < 0.0001). Child and maternal energy intakes from other foods for which portion size was not altered did not differ across conditions. Consequently, total energy intakes in the large-portion condition were 12% (P < 0.001) and 6% (P < 0.01) higher in children and mothers, respectively, than in the reference condition. Child and maternal intakes of the portion-manipulated foods were not correlated. Large portions may contribute to obesigenic dietary environments by promoting excess daily intakes among Hispanic and African American children.

Portion size effects on daily energy intake in low-income Hispanic and African American children and their mothers

Portion size effects on daily energy intake in low-income Hispanic and African American children and their mothers

Maternal self‐efficacy and 1–5‐year‐old children's brushing habits

This study investigates the relationships between maternal cognitive, behavioral, and psychosocial factors and brushing practices in low-income African-American preschool children. Data are from a population-based sample of 1021 African-American families with at least one child <6 years of age and living in the 39 low-income Census tracts in Detroit, Michigan. Analyses were limited to 1-5-year-old children and their mothers (n = 719). Mothers were surveyed about oral health-related self-efficacy (OHSE), knowledge about appropriate bottle use (KBU), knowledge about children's oral hygiene (KCOH), oral health fatalism (OHF), their own toothbrushing behavior, depressive symptoms (CES-D), parenting stress, practical social support, and their child's dental history. Children's 1-week reported brushing frequency was the main outcome measure. Analyses were conducted in SUDAAN to account for the complex sampling design. Children's 1-week brushing frequency (range 0-40) averaged 8.50 times per week among 1-3-year olds and 9.75 among the 4-5-year olds. Maternal OHSE was a strong and significant predictor of children's brushing frequency; for each unit increase in OHSE, 1-3-year olds were expected to brush 18% more frequently on average during 1 week [incidence density ratios (IDR) = 1.18, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.08-1.28; P < 0.001], and 4-5-year olds were expected to brush 9% more often (IDR = 1.09, 95% CI 1.00-1.19; P < 0.10). Mothers' KCOH score was also significantly positively associated with brushing frequency; for each unit increase on the KCOH scale, 1-3-year olds were expected to brush 22% more frequently (IDR = 1.22, 95% CI 1.10-1.35; P < 0.001) and 4-5-year olds were expected to brush 13% more frequently (IDR = 1.13, 95% CI 1.02-1.26; P < 0.05). If a mother brushed her own teeth at bedtime during the week, her 1-3-year old child's brushing frequency was expected to increase by one-third (IDR = 1.34, 95% CI 1.12-1.60; P < 0.01) and among the 4-5-year olds, the child's frequency was expected to increase by one-quarter (IDR = 1.26, 95% CI 1.12-1.42; P < 0.001). Availability of help with transportation and financial support were also relevant variables for 1-3-year olds. Higher family income and dental insurance coverage were both positively associated with brushing among 4-5-year olds. Several maternal cognitive, behavioral, and psychosocial factors were associated with young children's brushing practices. Oral health-specific self-efficacy and knowledge measures are potentially modifiable cognitions; findings suggest that intervening on these factors could help foster healthy dental habits and increase children's brushing frequency early in life.

Determinants of dental care visits among low-income African-American children

The objective of the authors' analysis was to investigate the determinants of dental care visits among young, low-income African-American children. Trained researchers interviewed a representative sample of low-income black families (caregivers and children aged 0 through 5 years) in Detroit to assess their dental visit history, dental insurance status and oral health behaviors. Dental examinations were conducted using the International Caries Diagnosis Assessment System (ICDAS). Of the 1,021 families who completed an interview and examination, a subset of the 552 children aged 3 to 5 years (and their primary caregivers) was the focus of this analysis. Children with private dental insurance had four times higher odds of having visited a dentist compared with those who had no dental insurance, and the odds for children receiving Medicaid were about 1.5 times higher. A child's age and a caregiver's educational attainment were positive and significant determinants of child dental visits. Caregivers who visited a dentist for preventive reasons were five times more likely to have taken their children to visit the dentist. Visiting a dentist was associated with an increased mean number of filled or missing tooth surfaces, but it was not significantly associated with the mean number of untreated decayed teeth. Children's dental insurance status was a significant determinant of their having visited a dentist. Even after the authors accounted for insurance status and other risk indicators, they found that children of caregivers who reported visiting a dentist for preventive care had a higher number of dental care visits. Determinants of caregivers' preventive dental visits must be identified and encouraged to improve the percentage of low-income children who visit dentists.

Adaptive Emotion Regulation among Low-Income African American Children

This study examined early childhood predictors of adaptive emotion regulation among economically disadvantaged urban African American children. Vagal tone (VNA), attachment, and regulation capacities were assessed among 69 preschoolers. Two years later, additional indices of child regulation were obtained for 56 of the children. Emotion regulation was assessed through observation, child self-report, parent report, and teacher report. As expected, attachment and VNA were not significantly correlated. Surprisingly, there were few significant main effects for attachment or VNA on child emotion regulation. However, significant interactions were found between VNA and attachment on a number of measures of regulation. Among children who were securely attached, high baseline VNA tended to predict better regulation abilities. The opposite pattern was found for children with insecure attachments. Findings suggest that the development of adaptive regulation capacities is a function of complex interactions among biological and social processes. Additionally, this study illustrates the importance of validating constructs with lower-income African American children that have been shown to predict regulation among middle-income Caucasian children.

Maternal Feeding Strategies, Child Eating Behaviors, and Child BMI in Low‐Income African‐American Preschoolers

To test the hypothesis that low-income African-American preschool children would have a higher BMI if their mothers reported greater "restriction" and "control" in feeding and if mothers reported that children showed greater "food responsiveness" and "desire to drink." In addition, to test whether higher maternal "pressure to eat" would be associated with lower child BMI. A questionnaire was completed by 296 low-income African-American mothers of preschool children. It assessed three constructs on maternal feeding strategies ("restriction," "pressure to eat," and "control") and two on child eating behaviors ("food responsiveness" and "desire to drink"). Children's BMI was measured, and mothers' BMI was self-reported. The mean (standard deviation) BMI z-score of the children was 0.34 (1.5), and 44% of the mothers were obese (BMI > or =30 kg/m(2)). Only maternal "pressure to eat" had a significant overall association with child BMI z-score (r = -0.16, p < 0.01). Both maternal "restriction" and "control" were positively associated with children's BMI z-score in the case of obese mothers (r = 0.20, p = 0.03 and r = 0.24, p = 0.007, respectively), but this was not so in the case of non-obese mothers (r = -0.16, p = 0.05 and r = -0.07, p = 0.39, respectively). Among low-income African Americans, the positive association between maternal restriction and control in feeding and their preschoolers' BMI was limited to obese mothers. Relations between parent feeding strategies and child weight status in this population may differ on the basis of maternal weight status.

Predicting asthma morbidity at three month follow-up among low-income African American children with severe persistent asthma

Predicting asthma morbidity at three month follow-up among low-income African American children with severe persistent asthma

Parental monitoring among adolescents in Beijing, China

Literature from Western nations has consistently implicated parental monitoring (both communication and supervision) as both a primary and a secondary protector against adolescent risk behavior [ 1 Steinberg L. The family at adolescence Transition and transformation. J Adolesc Health. 2000; 27: 170-178 Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (72) Google Scholar , 2 Li X. Stanton B. Feigelman S. Impact of perceived parental monitoring on adolescent risk behavior over four years. J Adolesc Health. 2000; 27: 49-56 Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (270) Google Scholar , 3 Steinberg L. Fletcher A. Darling N. Parental monitoring and peer influences on adolescent substance use. Pediatrics. 1994; 93: 1060-1064 PubMed Google Scholar ]. The relationship between parental monitoring and adolescent risk involvement persists across ethnic and racial groups [ 4 Steinberg L. Mounts N.S. Lamborn S.D. Authoritative parenting and adolescent adjustment across varied ecological niches. J Res Adolesc. 1991; 1: 19-36 Google Scholar , 5 Li X. Feigelman S. Stanton B. Perceived parental monitoring and health risk behaviors among urban low-income African-American children and adolescents. J Adolesc Health. 2000; 27: 43-48 Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (242) Google Scholar ]. The robustness of this association in the United States is somewhat surprising since parenting style differs significantly by culture [ 6 Harkness S. Super C. Culture and parenting. in: Bornstein M.H. Handbook of Parenting Vol. 2 Biology and Ecology of Parenting. Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc, Mahwah1995: 211-234 Google Scholar , 7 Steinberg L. Dornbusch S.M. Brown B.B. Ethnic differences in adolescent achievement An ecological perspective. Am Psychol. 1992; 47: 723-729 Crossref PubMed Scopus (749) Google Scholar , 8 Chen X. Dong Q. Zhou H. Authoritative and authoritarian parenting practices and social performance in Chinese children. Int J Behav Dev. 1997; 21: 855-873 Crossref Scopus (302) Google Scholar ]. One possible explanation for the consistency of the relationship in spite of difference in monitoring style within the United States is that these subculture variations are comparatively minor. More substantial differences in the relationship might be found in different countries, particularly countries with substantially different cultural heritages from those found with American’s “melting pot.” Accordingly, we undertook examination of the relationship between perceived parental monitoring and adolescent risk involvement among a sample of youth in Beijing, China.

Maternal prepregnancy body mass index and psychomotor development in children.

In a prospective study, the association between maternal nutritional status and psychomotor development of low-income African-American children was evaluated. We hypothesized that low maternal body mass index (BMI) would predict worse neurodevelopmental status in children, while higher maternal BMIs would be associated with better neurodevelopmental outcomes. Psychomotor tests for general intelligence and motor skills were given to 355 children at a mean age of 5.3 years. Maternal nutritional status was assessed by prepregnancy body mass index (BMI) and weight gain during pregnancy. Fifty-four percent of the women in this study were overweight or obese. The means of the general IQ, nonverbal and verbal ability, and Gross Motor Scales of the children were 82.1 +/- 12.6, 87.4 +/- 15.7, 80.1 +/- 10.8 and 332.3 +/- 13.2, respectively. Seventeen percent of the children had general IQ scores of less than 70. To our surprise, in multiple regression analyses, adjusting for other covariates, maternal prepregnancy BMI was a significant negative predictor of IQ (beta = - 0.25, P = 0.001) and nonverbal ability (beta = - 0.29, P = 0.02). The IQ and nonverbal scores of children of women who were obese before pregnancy were approximately 5 units lower than for children whose mothers had a normal prepregnancy BMI. The other significant predictors of IQ and nonverbal scores of the children were childcare status (beta = 3.5, P = 0.04 and beta = 0.26, P < 0.0001, respectively) and the mother's receptive language scores (beta = 5.2, P = 0.01 and beta = 0.25, P < 0.0001, respectively). This study of low-income African-American children indicates that obese women are at risk of having children with diminished intellectual ability, but not motor skills.

Maternal prepregnancy body mass index and psychomotor development in children

Background. In a prospective study, the association between maternal nutritional status and psychomotor development of low-income African–American children was evaluated. We hypothesized that low maternal body mass index (BMI) would predict worse neurodevelopmental status in children, while higher maternal BMIs would be associated with better neurodevelopmental outcomes. Methods. Psychomotor tests for general intelligence and motor skills were given to 355 children at a mean age of 5.3 years. Maternal nutritional status was assessed by prepregnancy body mass index (BMI) and weight gain during pregnancy. Results. Fifty-four percent of the women in this study were overweight or obese. The means of the general IQ, nonverbal and verbal ability, and Gross Motor Scales of the children were 82.1 ± 12.6, 87.4 ± 15.7, 80.1 ± 10.8 and 332.3 ± 13.2, respectively. Seventeen percent of the children had general IQ scores of less than 70. To our surprise, in multiple regression analyses, adjusting for other covariates, maternal prepregnancy BMI was a significant negative predictor of IQ (β = − 0.25, P = 0.001) and nonverbal ability (β = − 0.29, P = 0.02). The IQ and nonverbal scores of children of women who were obese before pregnancy were approximately 5 units lower than for children whose mothers had a normal prepregnancy BMI. The other significant predictors of IQ and nonverbal scores of the children were childcare status (β = 3.5, P = 0.04 and β = 0.26, P < 0.0001, respectively) and the mother's receptive language scores (β = 5.2, P = 0.01 and β = 0.25, P < 0.0001, respectively). Conclusion. This study of low-income African–American children indicates that obese women are at risk of having children with diminished intellectual ability, but not motor skills.

Using culturally sensitive theories and research to meet the academic needs of low-income African American children.

The economic and social barriers to the academic and social success of many African American children remain in place as the new millennium begins. These realities provide impetus for developing community-based partnership education programs designed to self-empower African American children for academic and social success under any socioeconomic conditions that exist in their lives. Progress toward effective program development, however, has been hindered by a dearth of culturally sensitive theories and research. The Research-Based Model Partnership Education Program (Model Program) is an effective, community-based, university-school-community partnership education program for self-empowering African American children for success. The formative and summative research of the Model Program is described in hopes of advancing theory and research for meeting the academic and social needs of low-income African American children.

Teacher and child variables as predictors of academic engagement among low‐income African American children

AbstractA causal model for understanding the complex interplay between student‐reported teacher behaviors, student self‐systems, and student engagement was tested. One hundred seventeen African American students in grades 1 through 12 completed a comprehensive questionnaire regarding teacher context, self, and engagement variables. A series of hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to test the hypothesized mediation models and to construct a path model. Most hypotheses were supported. Student self‐system variables (perceived competency and autonomy) mediated relations between teacher context (structure and autonomy support), and engagement. Contrary to predictions, however, teacher involvement exerted a strong and direct effect on student engagement even when controlling for grade level and self‐system variables. Given existing research showing that African American students are at risk for low teacher involvement and that engagement is critical for academic success, research and intervention strategies are urgently needed to promote teacher involvement with these students. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Using culturally sensitive theories and research to meet the academic needs of low-income African American children.

Using culturally sensitive theories and research to meet the academic needs of low-income African American children.

A Qualitative Investigation of Perceptions of Violence Risk Factors in Low-Income African American Children

Conducted a qualitative investigation to identify the perceptions of risk factors for violence in a sample of inner-city African American youth. Using ethnographic analyses, themes emerging from these data included concerns about the reciprocity between drugs and violence, familial quality of life issues, gender differences in the experience of violence and risk for violence, community safety concerns, and fears about managing peer relationships specific to violence. These data are interpreted relative to the risk factors the violence prevention literature has identified among youth residing in urban environments. Findings are discussed in terms of their potential contribution to generating hypotheses for the development of theory and effective violence prevention practice.

Cultural Resources and Psychological Adjustment of African American Children: Effects of Spirituality and Racial Attribution

This study explored the relationship of a family’s sociocultural resources to adjustment in a sample of low-income African American children from Ohio and Southeastern Michigan. Children of parents attending church at least weekly had fewer problems compared to those whose parents attended less frequently. Furthermore, the use of racial attributions to explain negative life outcomes was related to more frequent behavior problems. These data confirm the importance of religion as a sociocultural resource in African American families, one that potentially contributes to resilience of children at risk for behavioral or emotional maladjustment as a function of growing up in poor families and communities. In contrast, the data point out the complexity in the effects of reliance on racial attributions to explain outcomes. Although many have argued that such attributions may be a protective factor, they did not protect against children’s behavior problems.