Low Impact Urban Design Research Articles

Adaptation and application of low impact urban design and development (LIUDD) in Resistencia, Argentina

Low impact urban design and development (LIUDD) emerged as an approach promoting urban development while reducing its negative impact on the natural environment, especially on the natural hydrology cycle. While the object being concerned (i.e., the natural hydrology cycle) is universal, the processes and steps taken for reducing urban development negative impact on it as promoted by LIUDD are supposedly contextualized to the place where LIUDD is conceived, that is New Zealand. This article explores the adaptation and application of LIUDD done jointly by Argentinian and Indonesian landscape architecture students when intervening a naturally flooded area and designing a flood park in Resistencia, Chaco, Argentina. This article was written through a qualitative and descriptive research. The design process and outcomes were analysed using the LIUDD process and design principles as the framework. It is found that designing properly following the LIUDD process requires extensive data on the natural environment that are not always easily available for the Resistencia context. However, the LIUDD design principles are rather universal and can be adapted to the Resistencia context.

The social control and rainwater management in Brazil / O controle social e a gestão das águas pluviais no Brasil

The aim of this article is to discuss the conflicts of jurisdiction between the different entities of the Brazilian Federation about water management, particularly since these were not determined by the resolutions of the 1988 Federal Constitution. Although the role of the different players involved was outlined in the Water Resources Law, it was only through the enactment of the Law on Basic Sanitation, updated in 2020, that the municipalities were given responsibility for the management of rainwater in Brazil. Rainwater management currently forms, or should form, a part of the municipal planning of basic sanitation and community involvement, together with transparency, is becoming a key principle underlying the new model of local governance. The adoption of sustainable techniques and non-conventional methods of water management, based on the concept of Low Impact Urban Design and Development (LIUDD), is serving as a model for the kind of rainwater management that can allow social control together with democratic participation and the decentralization of sanitation services.

Demonstrating the need to simultaneously implement all water sensitive design methods for aquatic ecosystem health

The practices commonly known as ‘Water Sensitive Design’, or ‘Low Impact Urban Design and Development’, provide a comprehensive package of practices, (building blocks), that respect and work with the natural water cycle and enhance biodiversity. Much previous research has focussed on determining the sustainability gains achieved by the implementation of a narrow range of closely related techniques, such as the installation of at-source devices for stormwater retention and treatment. Other research has investigated the gains for the health of an ecosystem from the reduction of impervious surfaces, or from riparian revegetation, or from the clustering together of buildings. Relationships between these practices and techniques have been observed, but urban developers continue to implement practices such as these in isolation whereas it is suspected that the aquatic ecosystems need all of the practices and techniques to be implemented simultaneously. Without the synchrony of simultaneous implementation, degradation of the ecosystems may still occur and the real cause of it may be missed. The purpose of this research is to monitor, using a biotic index, the ecosystem responses of streams to the simultaneous implementation of as many as possible of these practices (the building blocks) at two different urban densities in paired sub-catchment studies within the Hauraki Gulf catchment of Auckland, New Zealand. Significant differences in the health of the ecosystems of the streams between some treatment and control sub-catchments are observed at both densities. The failure to apply all the techniques (building block methods), or to apply them appropriately in some of the case study sub-catchments, demonstrates a consequent degradation of the ecosystems of the streams that is expected to have negative consequences, not only for local streams but for the marine receiving environment.

Adaptación metodológica en el diseño y desarrollo urbano de bajo impacto para el manejo de aguas pluviales en Colima, México

Contexto: Hoy en día, las ciudades requieren la implementación de nuevas experiencias de transformación urbana, debido a que la urbanización es responsable del 70 % de emisiones globales de CO2. El reto que confronta en materia urbana es hacer frente al CCG a nivel ciudad, mediante infraestructura multifuncional.
 Método: El presente estudio se llevó a cabo bajo la perspectiva del diseño y desarrollo urbano de bajo impacto (LIUDD, por su sigla en inglés) contextualizando el marco francés de planeación urbana, en el cual, el manejo de agua es prioritario. La ciudad de Colima presenta un crecimiento horizontal desordenado y, en consecuencia, la extensión de áreas impermeables ha provocado escorrentías, inundaciones y congestionamiento vial.
 Resultados: La zona norte-poniente presenta un área de oportunidad para tratar dichas problemáticas, como se analizó en esta investigación. La zona de estudio presenta un alto nivel de ocupación del suelo (COS=0,76-1,00) obteniendo un coeficiente de escorrentía CE=0,96. Además, presenta una baja densidad poblacional (51-100 hab/ha), con un 92 % de motorización. La vialidad ocupa el 91 % de la superficie de espacio público, por lo que representa un área de oportunidad para la infraestructura multifuncional. Se propone que mediante técnicas de drenaje urbano sostenible implementadas en vialidades principales, se reduzca el CE a 0,90, y el volumen de inundaciones en un 203 %, priorizando los modos activos de transporte.
 Conclusiones: Desarrollar e implementar una gestión integral del agua, sustentada en un cuadro reglamentario que priorice el LIUDD, puede paliar el estrés hídrico en esta y otras ciudades con problemáticas comunes, mediante la creación de una coordinación integrada por representantes de diversos sectores. Lo anterior, con el objetivo de poder gestionar el espacio público, y de impulsar proyectos multifuncionales para manejo de aguas pluviales, movilidad y desarrollo urbano que puedan ser útiles en la aplicación de nuevas maneras de planificar nuestras ciudades y mitigar los riesgos climáticos.

Application of low impact development concept in the construction of Shouxian County

Low Impact Development (LID), also known as low impact design or low impact urban design and development, is a rainwater management method based on the principle of simulating natural hydrological conditions, using source control concepts to achieve stormwater control and utilization. Through the analysis of the current topography, meteorology, rainfall, and urban underlying surface of Shouxian County, the author finds out the cause of the county, and proposes to appropriately improve the design standards in the construction of municipal drainage facilities, and learn from the successful experience of sponge city construction in developed countries. The six-character policy of seepage, stagnation, storage, net, use and platoon is implemented in the engineering practice of the county-level recessed green space, rain garden, grass-growing ditch, infiltration pavement and water system remediation. Through several years of implementation, the phenomenon of sea watching in the county has disappeared, the water saving effect is obvious, the greening of the urban landscape has been greatly improved, and the social, economic and environmental benefits have been significantly improved

Urban environments sustainable development through low impact approaches

The rapid rate of urbanisation is putting pressure on ecological condition of cities and caused to producing changes on hydrological processes and specially increasing of storm-generated flows and water pollutants. Traditional urban catchment management methods have overlooked many opportunities to perform water-sensitive urban development and public space design strategies, to decrease impacts on the natural water cycle. During recent years, the low impact approaches in urban development have been recommended as an alternative to these traditional stormwater management. The main objective of this paper is to define what low impact approaches are and what they are not, by defining principles and practices and to show the relationship between the principles and implementation actions. This paper reviews the literature on low impact approaches like low-impact development (LID) and low-impact urban design and development (LIUDD) and presents some relevant designing tools and processes that can be used by urban planners and designers in the urban development.

Avaliação do papel dos telhados verdes no desenho e desenvolvimento urbano de baixo impacto ambiental e no controle de enchentes na Cidade do Rio de Janeiro

Este trabalho discute o papel dos telhados verdes no desenho e desenvolvimento urbano de baixo impacto ambiental. São aprofundadas as questões relacionadas ao manejo das águas pluviais urbanas e é avaliado o desempenho dos telhados verdes como dispositivos nos sistemas de micro e macrodrenagem. A metodologia envolveu a aplicação de modelos computacionais hidrológicos-hidráulicos através de estudo de caso em bacia hidrográfica localizada em área de paisagem peri-urbana na cidade do Rio de Janeiro. O modelo computacional adotado, SWMM da US-EPA, permite que se insira de maneira hipotética estes dispositivos em edificações pré-existentes. Através do estudo de cenários sem e com inserção de telhados verdes, pode-se avaliar virtualmente o papel destes dispositivos na redução dos volumes escoados superficialmente e da vazão instantânea máxima, assim como das condições de extravasamento da calha fluvial sob chuva intensa real observada no local em abril de 2010. Os resultados permitiram verificar que apesar de não reverter o extravasamento da calha fluvial, os telhados verdes tiveram impacto na redução dos volumes escoados superficialmente, que agravam as enchentes urbanas, e da vazão máxima instantânea em até 10% aproximadamente. A partir destes resultados e da avaliação das outras sinergias dos telhados verdes com o desenho e desenvolvimento urbano de baixo impacto ambiental recomenda-se o incentivo de políticas públicas que possam viabilizar sua adoção nas cidades Brasileiras com vistas à melhoria da qualidade de vida da população que habita os aglomerados urbanos.

Tree Species Suitability to Bioswales and Impact on the Urban Water Budget.

Water movement between soil and the atmosphere is restricted by hardscapes in the urban environment. Some green infrastructure is intended to increase infiltration and storage of water, thus decreasing runoff and discharge of urban stormwater. Bioswales are a critical component of a water-sensitive urban design (or a low-impact urban design), and incorporation of trees into these green infrastructural components is believed to be a novel way to return stored water to the atmosphere via transpiration. This research was conducted in The Morton Arboretum's main parking lot, which is one of the first and largest green infrastructure installations in the midwestern United States. The parking lot is constructed of permeable pavers and tree bioswales. Trees in bioswales were evaluated for growth and condition and for their effects on water cycling via transpiration. Our data indicate that trees in bioswales accounted for 46 to 72% of total water outputs via transpiration, thereby reducing runoff and discharge from the parking lot. By evaluating the stomatal conductance, diameter growth, and condition of a variety of tree species in these bioswales, we found that not all species are equally suited for bioswales and that not all are equivalent in their transpiration and growth rates, thereby contributing differentially to the functional capacity of bioswales. We conclude that species with high stomatal conductance and large mature form are likely to contribute best to bioswale function.

Identifying Commonalities between Indigenous Values and Current Sustainable Design Concepts in Aotearoa New Zealand

Urbanization creates impervious surfaces which reduce natural hydrologic functions and result in channel erosion, loss of property and habitat degradation. Sustainable design and management adopts a more holistic approach to conventional methods. Various techniques for sustainable management are Low Impact Development (LID), Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) and Low Impact Urban Design and Development (LIUDD). Regardless of terminology, the introduction of such concepts to Aotearoa New Zealand reflects a paradigm shift from conventional stormwater management techniques to a more sustainable design philosophy. This paper proposes that the imported concepts of sustainable design run parallel to indigenous values when applied in the Aotearoa New Zealand context. Mātauranga Māori is the indigenous knowledge of the Māori people of Aotearoa. Examples are presented to discuss the parallels between current sustainable design techniques and the contribution of mātauranga Māori through indigenous values.

Water sensitive residential developments: Application of LIUDD principles and methods in the Netherlands, Australia and New Zealand

One method of enhancing the health of receiving water ecosystems is to ensure that local plans and practices guiding urban development are underpinned by appropriate design principles. This paper reports on a policy and practices framework developed in New Zealand, and investigates the uptake and implementation of Low Impact Urban Design and Development (LIUDD). A hierarchy of LIUDD principles has been developed as a foundation for policy development in statutory and non-statutory plans and guidelines. Each principle is accompanied by practical implementation methods using sustainable technologies in a local context. Greenfield developments in urban growth areas in the Netherlands, Australia and New Zealand are assessed with respect to elements of the framework. The assessments show that the LIUDD principles are relevant internationally across greenfield developments of similar town and catchment scales. Application of the principles can inform decision makers so that they become more critically aware of aquatic sustainability imperatives in the urban design and redevelopment process.

Low impact urban design and development: Catchment-based structure planning to optimise ecological outcomes

Where receiving-water health is the driver for a change from conventional urbanisation, the logical design and management framework is the catchment (river-basin). New Zealand examples of catchment-based structure planning use a common approach that meets the objectives of the practice of Low Impact Urban Design and Development (LIUDD). One key ingredient is the clustering of buildings in catchment ‘middle lands’ removed from environmentally sensitive areas such as erosion-prone escarpments, ridges, riparian corridors and wetlands. This facilitates additional open space creation enabling ecosystem protection or restoration, the optimisation of landscape qualities and recreational opportunities. Using New Zealand case studies of Long Bay (North Shore), Flat Bush (Manukau) and Mapara Valley (Taupo) this paper reports on progressive learning across municipalities, developers and communities that have used the LIUDD approach. It demonstrates progress towards merging Integrated Catchment Management (ICM) planning with structure planning while considering ecosystem processes and receiving water objectives. Successful implementation was enhanced by the presence of champions providing leadership, and the allowance of time for institutional change and community buy-in to the process.

Water localisation and reclamation: Steps towards low impact urban design and development

Numerous drivers are providing stimulus for increased water cycle localisation within urban neighbourhoods. This paper uses predominantly Australasian case studies to highlight trends, successes and challenges in the transition to neighbourhood centred water-based services using ‘Low Impact’ and ‘Water Sensitive’ design and development techniques. Major steps towards urban sustainability are demonstrated, for example, up to 70% reduction in the demand for potable water (Aurora, Melbourne), removal of contaminated stormwater and sewage effluent discharge to natural waterways vulnerable to nutrient or toxin accumulation, and up to 55% of the area of the greenfield site planted in indigenous species (Regis Park, New Zealand). Reduced demand for potable water would enable continued undiluted use of ‘pure’ water sources from limited bush catchments (Waitakere Ranges, New Zealand), and less dependence on rivers stressed by low flows. Reductions and dispersion of sewage effluent discharges protects receiving waters, such as Port Phillip Bay, Melbourne, from eutrophication. Reduced stormwater discharge favours retention of the natural hydrological regime of rivers and minimises bioaccumulation of toxins in aquatic ecosystems.

Increasing uptake of low impact urban design and development: The role of sustainability assessment systems

‘Market transformation’ of the significant urban development industry towards more sustainable practices is not moving at great pace. Design and assessment systems that may promote uptake of more sustainable urban design and development are reviewed briefly followed by a comparison between building and neighbourhood scales. For the latter there is a dearth of design and assessment tools for the residential built environment and of indicators to monitor progress towards sustainable development. Local authorities increasingly require an integrated approach to data collection and inclusion of infrastructure service providers in design, assessment and monitoring of urban development and associated environmental effects. By examining attempts to increase uptake of more sustainable residential development, the potential for tools and indicators at the neighbourhood scale to reduce environmental impact of the built environment is highlighted. It is recommended that built environment initiatives need to be combined with research into behavioural changes to achieve the desired outcome of a sustainable built environment and to increase the dialogue between communities, developers and local authorities.

TURNING THE SUPER TANKER:BEYOND ETHNOGRAPHY AND INTO COLLABORATIVE LEARNING APPROACHES TO URBAN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

This paper reflects on the place of ethnography in collaborative learning in the context of urban environmental management. The Low Impact Urban Design and Development (LIUDD) research programme is aimed at facilitating the uptake and implementation of low-impact principles, with a focus on improved approaches to storm-water management. Collaborative learning approaches include the use of case studies, learning groups and a web-based database. Place-based case studies are intended to showcase some examples of LIUDD and develop forums for refining research questions and developing innovative solutions. Ethnographic research approaches fit well with the process of collaborative learning, helping to understand how stakeholder groups think about, evaluate, control and manage land and other resources. Organising and presenting this information in accessible formats, providing opportunities for stakeholders to reflect on and learn from each others’ practices and experiences, and facilitating critical dialogue aimed at transformative change are key aspects of the approach.

EMERGING APPROACHES TO URBAN ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT: THE POTENTIAL OF LOW IMPACT URBAN DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT PRINCIPLES

The incorporation of integrated water cycle management into urban design is essential for urban sustainability. This paper provides insight into the evolution of Low Impact Urban Design and Development (LIUDD). It explores changes in urban design and infrastructure that reduce or avoid adverse biophysical effects that have contributed to the decline of aquatic biotic integrity following urban intensification in catchments. Recent practices in Canada, the United States and New Zealand offset receiving water ecosystem degradation by maximising catchment stormwater infiltration at source, contaminant containment and catchment revegetation. Local soil, climate, maturity and density of urban form, and vegetation characteristics determine the balance between infiltration and evapotranspiration in application of techniques. Examples are cited of brownfield stormwater infiltration in the Netherlands (Ruwenbosch, Enschede), neighbourhood containment of water and waste cycles in Germany (Leipzig) and site-specific developments proving the cost-effectiveness of LIUDD. LIUDD, which is evolving from its origins in stormwater management, is making a major contribution to many facets of urban sustainability, including improved urban amenity and recreation, cost-effective infrastructure and biodiversity enhancement.

The influence of urban density and drainage infrastructure on the concentrations and loads of pollutants in small streams.

Effective water quality management of streams in urbanized basins requires identification of the elements of urbanization that contribute most to pollutant concentrations and loads. Drainage connection (the proportion of impervious area directly connected to streams by pipes or lined drains) is proposed as a variable explaining variance in the generally weak relationships between pollutant concentrations and imperviousness. Fifteen small streams draining independent subbasins east of Melbourne, Australia, were sampled for a suite of water quality variables. Geometric mean concentrations of all variables were calculated separately for baseflow and storm events, and these, together with estimates of runoff derived from a rainfall-runoff model, were used to estimate mean annual loads. Patterns of concentrations among the streams were assessed against patterns of imperviousness, drainage connection, unsealed (unpaved) road density, elevation, longitude (all of which were intercorrelated), septic tank density, and basin area. Baseflow and storm event concentrations of dissolved organic carbon (DOC), filterable reactive phosphorus (FRP), total phosphorus (TP) and ammonium, along with electrical conductivity (EC), all increased with imperviousness and its correlates. Hierarchical partitioning showed that DOC, EC, FRP, and storm event TP were independently correlated with drainage connection more strongly than could be explained by chance. Neither pH nor total suspended solids concentrations were strongly correlated with any basin variable. Oxidized and total nitrogen concentrations were most strongly explained by septic tank density. Loads of all variables were strongly correlated with imperviousness and connection. Priority should be given to low-impact urban design, which primarily involves reducing drainage connection, to minimize urbanization-related pollutant impacts on streams.

Protection of in-stream biota from urban impacts: minimise catchment imperviousness or improve drainage design?

Urbanisation is a looming global threat to in-stream biodiversity, but the best approaches to mitigation are unclear. This paper asks if the protection of in-stream biota, in particular macroinvertebrate assemblages, is dependent on the sequestration of catchments from urbanisation, or if protection in urbanised catchments can be achieved through better drainage design. In-stream macroinvertebrate assemblage composition was assessed for 16 catchments spanning a rural–urban gradient. Catchment imperviousness and drainage connection (the proportion of impervious area directly connected to streams by stormwater pipes), together with other possible driving factors, were assessed as explanatory variables of macroinvertebrate assemblage composition. The proportion of variance explained independently and jointly by each variable was assessed by hierarchical partitioning. Assemblage composition was strongly explained by the gradient of urban density (i.e. a large proportion of variance was jointly explained by variables correlated with the urban gradient; imperviousness, connection, longitude and elevation). However, drainage connection was the strongest independent correlate. Most sensitive taxa were absent from sites with >20% connection. Thus the connection of impervious surfaces to streams by pipes is a more likely determinant of taxa loss than the impervious areas themselves. Low-impact urban design approaches that reduce drainage connection are postulated as the most effective management solution to the protection of stream biota in urban catchments.