Low Carbon Materials Research Articles

Unveiling the potential for decarbonization of the building sector: A comparative study of technological and non-technological low-carbon strategies

There is an urgent need to mitigate carbon emissions in the building sector, particularly from existing buildings. The existing literature focuses predominantly on technological strategies such as low-carbon materials. This prompts the question: Can technological strategies alone drive the decarbonization of buildings, or are non-technological strategies also essential? Although recent research considers the benefits of the latter, studies assessing the potential of non-technological strategies for decarbonization of buildings are lacking because of the challenges involved in evaluating the indirect impacts and potential trade-offs associated with these strategies such as their ripple effects on mobility. This study pioneers a comparative assessment to evaluate the environmental mitigation potential of non-technological strategies (adaptation, a subset of the sharing economy, and behavioral changes) against technological strategies (low-carbon materials, retrofitting, and recycled materials) to ascertain the effectiveness of non-technological approaches. Through life cycle assessment, this study extends beyond solely evaluating the GHG reduction potential to assess the overall environmental mitigation capacity. A single-family house in Montreal was used as a reference scenario. With significant mitigation potential observed from a non-technological perspective, the results robustly reveal that the adaptation scenario surpasses all scenarios, including retrofitting, which is the primary mitigation strategy for existing buildings, by up to 50 % and 41 % at the midpoint and damage levels, respectively. Furthermore, the adaptation scenario potentially provides sufficiency by saving considerable amounts of material and energy, thereby alleviating the environmental impact of the production and use stages by up to 27 % and 15 %, respectively. This study also evaluates the combined effects of adaptation and retrofitting for existing buildings, revealing by up to 8 % greater environmental benefits at the midpoint and damage levels than in the adaptation scenario individually. These results highlight the potential of non-technological strategies that are currently overlooked in the building sector. However, their implementation requires fewer resources and less energy than technological changes. Therefore, further investigation is warranted to explore how adopting these strategies, along with technological ones, is advantageous.

Comparative Study of Life-Cycle Environmental and Cost Performance of Aluminium Alloy–Concrete Composite Columns

As is widely known, the construction industry is one of the sectors with a large contribution to global carbon emissions. Despite numerous efforts in the construction industry to develop low-carbon materials, there is a limited number of studies quantifying and presenting the overall environmental impact when these materials are applied in a construction project as structural members. To address this gap, this study focuses on assessing the life-cycle performance of novel structural aluminium alloy–concrete composite columns. In this paper, the environmental impacts and economic aspects of a concrete-filled aluminium alloy tubular (CFAT) column and a concrete-filled double-skin aluminium alloy tubular (CFDSAT) column were assessed using life-cycle assessment (LCA) and life-cycle cost analysis (LCCA) approaches, respectively. The cradle-to-grave system boundary is considered for these analyses to cover the entire life-cycle. A concrete-filled steel tubular (CFST) column is also assessed for reference. All columns are designed to have the same load-carrying capacity and, thus, are compared on a level-playing basis. A comparison is also made of the self-weight of these columns. In particular, the self-weight of the CFST column is reduced by around 17% when the steel tube is replaced by an aluminium alloy tube, and decreased by 47% when the double-skin technique is adopted in CFDSAT columns. The LCA results indicate that the CO2 emission of CFST and CFAT is almost the same, which is 21% less than the CFDSAT columns due to the use of high aluminium in the latter. The LCCA results show that the total life-cycle cost of CFAT and CFDSAT columns is around 29% and 14% lower, respectively, than that of the CFST column. Finally, a sensitivity analysis was carried out to evaluate the effects of data and assumptions on the life-cycle performance of the examined columns.

Assessing and mitigating environmental impacts of construction materials: Insights from environmental product declarations

Construction activities significantly impact natural resources and the environment, accounting for 40 % of global energy consumption and 36 % of carbon emissions. This study evaluates the environmental impacts of various primary construction materials by leveraging more original and comprehensive Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs) and incorporates insights from prevvious research to summarize effective mitigation strategies. Analyzing the environmental impact per unit mass is a critical step toward building-level assessments, enabling the strategic replacement of high-pollution materials with lower-impact alternatives to optimize environmental outcomes. The quantitative analysis of data from 180 EPDs indicates that aluminum and steel have the highest median total environmental impacts per unit mass, followed by plastics, while wood, cement, and concrete have relatively lower impacts. Overall, Abiotic Depletion Potential (ADP) and Global Warming Potential (GWP) are identified as the primary environmental impacts of construction materials. At the building level, the environmental footprint varies based on the quantity of each material used, leading to substantial overall impacts. Furthermore, this study explores the relationships between different environmental impacts, finding positive correlations between GWP and Primary Energy Non-Renewable Energy (PENRE), Acidification Potential (AP), and Photochemical Ozone Creation Potential (POCP). A comprehensive literature review identifies the key environmental hotspots and mitigation strategies for high-impact materials such as aluminum, steel, cement, and concrete. Common strategies include innovative production methods, waste recycling, carbon capture and storage (CCS), and the development of low-carbon materials. By integrating quantitative EPDs analysis with a qualitative literature review, this research provides a holistic understanding of the environmental burdens of construction materials, offering a valuable framework for developing sustainable policies and practices within the construction industry.

Fresh and Hardened Properties of Alkali-Activated POFA-GGBFS Pastes Cured in Ambient Temperature – An Initial Mix Design

Weak soils are characterised by their high compressibility and low shear strength, which requires stabilisation to improve their compaction and strength characteristics before being used for construction projects. Recent trends in soil stabilisation show an increased interest in the application of waste-derived geopolymers as low-carbon materials to address the carbon emission problem related to cement production. This paper presents the preliminary findings of using Palm Oil Fuel Ash (POFA) and Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBFS) binary blends as geopolymer precursor materials. These binary waste material blends were activated using alkaline solutions, namely Sodium Hydroxide (NH) and Sodium Silicate (NS), to synthesise geopolymers at ambient temperatures. Three main factors were considered for the optimisation of the geopolymer mix design, as recommended by past research: alkali equivalent (8-11.5%), activator modulus (0-0.7), and slag replacement (fixed at 30%). Alkali equivalent and activator modulus parameters were varied and tested to establish its initial and final setting times, workability and strength properties, while the slag replacement percentage was set at 30%. This study aimed to determine the most influential parameters to produce the geopolymer material with the highest compressive strength and satisfactory setting times and workability. Single-source alkali activators (NH only) used on POFA-GGBFS produced specimens with smaller flow diameters, longer initial and final setting times, and lower compressive strength than specimens activated with NH and NS. Geopolymer specimens synthesised with NH and NS produce stiffer compounds possessing higher compressive strength values and explosive-type failure modes due to their higher silica content. At ambient temperatures, TM-Mix 2 (7% alkali equivalent and 0.7 activator modulus) produced the highest compressive strength value of 67.3 MPa at 28 days curing, flow diameter of 227 mm, with the initial and final setting time of 25 minutes and 45 minutes, respectively. Consequently, the results show that the preliminary POFA-GGBFS geopolymer mix design could produce sustainably sourced geopolymer compounds with adequate strength and acceptable setting time and workability. This study is part of a current investigation to further optimise the POFA-GGBFS mix design for the purpose of weak soil stabilisation.

Preface

The International Symposium and Workshop on Sustainable Buildings, Cities and Communities (SBCC) 2024 provides a platform to share ideas, research, and studies on how to mitigate global warming and tackle climate change. SBCC 2024 is organized by the Architecture Study Program, Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, with sponsorship from BeCool Indonesia and Tatalogam Group Inc. The initiative entails the Kampung BeCool project, which involves the painting of cool roofs on 20 houses to improve the microclimate of the neighborhood. It also includes the installation of three solar reflective houses to demonstrate low-carbon materials and energy-efficient housing solutions. The SBCC 2024 conference featured an array of speakers, encompassing professionals in the field of building and construction, scholars, decision-makers, and representatives from the industry. This symposium served as a genuine collaboration among stakeholders, aiming to tackle global challenges at both the macro and micro levels of execution. The event also showcased the efforts of architects, who have been instrumental in the development of “Building Low Carbon Future: Decarbonising with Impact,” while fostering partnerships with sustainable industries. The success of these endeavors is crucial in establishing connections and harmonizing the interests of all parties involved to attain the ambitious goal of the Enhanced Nationally Determined Contribution (E-NDC), which aims to reduce CO2 emissions by 32% or 912 million tonnes by 2030. List of Tributes to Colleagues, Sponsor and Funding Acknowledgements, Full List of Committee Names and Affiliations, Conference Details are available in this pdf.

An Urban Renewal Design Method Based on Carbon Emissions and Carbon Sink Calculations: A Case Study on an Environmental Improvement Project in the Suzhou Industrial Investment Science and Technology Park

In the process of urban renewal, the high carbon emissions caused by pollution from construction waste and the consumption of materials and energy via “demolition and construction” present significant problems. Calculating carbon emissions and sinks is a prerequisite to carving out a low-carbon path via urban renewal. In this paper, we take an environmental improvement project in the Suzhou Industrial Investment Science and Technology Park as an example. Under the framework of the entire life cycle, we define the “renewal phase”, which includes “demolition” and “construction”, as the calculation boundary, and use the emission coefficient method as the primary calculation approach to assess carbon emissions and sinks. We construct a design-oriented carbon revenue and expenditure estimation system based on the BIM model. After its application in empirical cases, the results show the following: ① The building carbon emissions of Scheme A are 342 t higher than those of Scheme B, due to the fact that the “demolition and construction” works in the former increased by 6000 m2 compared to the latter. ② The landscape carbon emissions of Scheme B are 269 t higher than those of Scheme A, due to the addition of a 2500 m2 reinforced concrete overhead walking platform. ③ The annual carbon sink of Scheme A is six times higher than that of Scheme B, due to the fact that the number of trees and shrubs in the former is five-to-six times greater than in the latter. The number of trees planted plays a decisive role in enhancing the carbon sink benefit. ④ In the year during which the renewal project was implemented, the difference in carbon emissions between Scheme A and Scheme B was 72.9 t. By the 16th year, the difference in carbon emissions between the two schemes approached zero, and the carbon reduction advantages of Scheme A became more pronounced over the entire life cycle thereafter. Finally, this article summarizes four low-carbon design strategies for industrial park renewal projects: rational construction and demolition, three-dimensional parking, low-carbon materials, and plant carbon sequestration. In the context of inventory renewal, this article makes a significant contribution in terms of carbon footprint control and the “dual-carbon” goal.

Research Progress and Hotspot Analysis of Low-Carbon Landscapes Based on CiteSpace Analysis

Global climate change caused by carbon dioxide emissions has become a hot topic globally. It is of great significance to study how low-carbon landscapes can reduce carbon emissions and improve the ecological environment. In this study, CiteSpace software was used to conduct a bibliometric analysis of the research field. The analysis data were based on 2910 studies published in the research field from 2002 to 2023. By analyzing the number of publications in the research field, cooperation networks, keywords, etc., the research status, processes, and hotspots of low-carbon landscapes were systematically reviewed. The results show the following: (1) Between 2002 and 2023, low-carbon landscape research developed rapidly, gradually becoming a multidisciplinary field. A large number of studies were conducted by relevant institutions and scholars from 106 countries. (2) The research focuses on carbon emission reduction, renewable energy, life cycle assessment, etc. The research mainly goes through the following stages: theoretical research on low-carbon technology, the application of low-carbon technology, and the development of the low-carbon economy. (3) Research frontiers focus on low-carbon landscape emission-reduction technologies, low-carbon landscape research methods, and the development and application of low-carbon materials. This study deeply analyzes the research process of low-carbon landscapes and puts forward a research direction for low-carbon landscapes in future urban development, such as economic benefit assessments, ecosystem restoration and protection, social participation, and policy support, in order to provide a reference for low-carbon landscape research.

Ways to decarbonize the construction industry as a modern challenge for obtaining low-carbon building materials

The analysis of modern approaches and ideas for the production of new building composite materials with a low carbon footprint, including those obtained using recycled materials from man-made waste, is presented. It is concluded that the reduction of carbon dioxide emissions in the production of low-carbon concretes occurs as a result of replacing part of the cement with other types of binders or special fillers that ensure the preservation or improvement of the basic parameters of the structure of the building material, or due to technologies that reduce the clinker fraction of the binder while maintaining the specified properties of concrete. The leaders in the world practice in the field of low-carbon materials science are noted. The relevance of the development of the topic of environmental safety and sustainable development is indicated.

Low carbon multi-binder composite using lithomargic soil, biomass, and calcined seashell powder for sustainable bricks

Bricks are manufactured using clays, which are fired at temperatures ranging from 1000 to 1200 °C. Due to the lack of quality clay, it is necessary to find alternate soils and waste materials for manufacturing bricks. The use of agricultural, aqua-cultural, and industrial wastes in the manufacturing of construction bricks leads to low-carbon material. This addresses the problem of agro-aqua-industrial waste disposal. The present study focuses on the utilization of biomass (BM) and slaked seashell powder (SSP) in compressed soil bricks made with locally available lithomargic soil (LS). The proposed soil bricks are prepared with 85% processed lithomargic soil, 12.5% biomass and 2.5% seashell powder. The reaction of multi-binder materials has been activated by one-part activation. The cast soil blocks are temperature cured at 100 °C, 250 °C, 500 °C & 750 °C to understand the effect of temperature on the hydration process of binder material. The compressed soil bricks are tested for compressive strength, initial rate of absorption, water absorption test, chloride content, sulphate content, microstructure analysis and thermal conductivity. The strength of soil bricks in bonding and in masonry, 3 prism and 4 prism tests were also conducted. Overall results indicate that bio-based alkali-activated brick masonry is superior for real-time adaptation because it reaches 10 MPa to 11.2 MPa compressive strength and 0.98 MPa to 1.2 MPa shear strength with curing at 500 °C.

Greenhouse gas emission reduction potential in road tunnels – Can we reach the European Union goals with existing materials and technologies?

To achieve the European Uniońs climate goals, the Norwegian transport sector has committed to decrease the Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 2030. For infrastructure projects, the GHG emissions from construction must be reduced by 40 %, while the emissions from maintenance must be cut by 50%. This paper investigates how realistic the GHG emission reduction goals are, if available low carbon materials and technologies are fully adopted. To examine this, we have chosen a typical Norwegian road tunnel from which two carbon emission scenarios are presented. While tunnels represent a specific subset of road infrastructure, this study showcases that implementing sustainable practices in drill and blast tunnel construction can align with the European Union’s ambitious 2030 targets. Besides this, the findings can assist stakeholders to get advice on the environmental impacts of tunnel designs.

Carbon Footprint Quantification and Reduction Potential of Ecological Revetment in Water Net Region of China: Case Study in Yancheng, Jiangsu Province

With emphasis on constructing low-carbon cities, the renovation of the riverbank highlights energy conservation and carbon reduction. However, methods and standards for quantifying carbon emissions during ecological river channel construction are currently lacking. There is a scientific gap in research into carbon footprint assessment and reduction potential in ecological revetment technologies in water networks of China. This study attempts to clarify the carbon emission factors of different ecological revetment technologies and explore the carbon reduction potential during the construction stage of ecological rivers from the river revetment design, construction process and materials. The results show that in the carbon emission factors of six ecological revetment technologies, building materials have the largest adjusting potential for carbon reduction. The concrete material is responsible for 55.37–95.86% of carbon emissions in six ecological river technologies, with an average proportion of 69.96%. Accordingly, the concrete material emerges as the primary contributor to carbon emissions in ecological river engineering, followed by gasoline truck transportation and earthwork excavation. Moreover, the carbon emissions from ecological frame structures were the largest, followed by those of block structures, gabion structures, planted concrete and interlocking blocks and the wooden stake structure has the smallest carbon footprint. The choice of ecological revetment technologies is not only related to the realisation of regional water conservancy functions, but it also affects the carbon emissions of water conservancy projects. Engineers and decision-makers should pay great attention to the optimal design of the project, selection of low-carbon materials, energy saving and emission reduction in the construction process. This research not only provides guidance for design units in selecting appropriate river revetment technologies but also offers a theoretical foundation and data support for construction units to optimise their construction process management.

The Circular Path Towards Decarbonising the Li-Ion Battery Value Chain

The rapid transition to clean energy and electric mobility has led to an unprecedented demand for Li-ion batteries (LIBs), necessitating a comprehensive decarbonisation of their entire value chain to meet climate goals [1]. This talk takes a holistic view at the LIB production and recycling system to explore cradle-to-cradle decarbonisation strategies. The Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) framework is used to quantify the comparative importance of developments in battery manufacturing, raw material sourcing and battery recycling in reducing greenhouse-gas emissions (GHG) arising from the globally-distributed LIB value chain.On the upstream side, sourcing low-carbon materials is found to reduce the GHG footprint of LIB manufacturing by up to a factor of 4, depending on raw material type and source, and battery chemistry [2]. The geographical links between battery Gigafactory location and GHG emissions are also explored, revealing substantial differences between US states, Chinese provinces and European countries, traced to the carbon intensity of electricity generation [2]. On the downstream side, hydrometallurgical and pyrometallurgical treatment options for end-of-life LIBs are shown to achieve a GHG benefit of up to 40%, when recovered materials are circulated back to LIB production [3].The battery production and recycling LCA models are integrated to present a comprehensive sensitivity analysis on the effectiveness of LIB recycling in reducing GHG emissions. This is shown to depend on battery chemistry, with lithium iron phosphate material recovery achieving lower benefits, but also on the geographical specificity of key operations, directly affecting the type of materials being displaced through secondary routes. The talk concludes with an outlook to 2035, presenting scenarios to reduce the GHG emissions of the battery value chain through technological developments, improvements in manufacturing and the establishment of circularity.

Unveiling the high strength and ductile character of reinforced CNT/geopolymer paste subjected to elevated temperatures

A significant challenge in developing suitable advanced materials in the construction sector is urgent face to the natural disasters affecting our infrastructure and endanger the world population. At this stage, geopolymers renowned as a green and low-carbon material has received considerable attention. Here, novel properties are revealed for Na-based and K-based metakaolin geopolymer paste reinforced by carbon nanotubes with various dosage, exposed to high temperatures. Results show that adding 1.08 wt% of CNT makes the geopolymer matrix thermally stable and resistant up to 1327 °C. It comes out that geopolymer nanostructure with low CNT concentration became tough to shear deformation along (001) plane up to 1127 °C and is easier to shear along (100) plane for highest CNT content. Calculations predict that low CNT dosage double the ductility of Na-based and K-based geopolymer matrix at room temperature. Heating up to 1327 °C enhances the stiffness of both nanostructures. The micro-hardness doubles at 800 °C for Na-based rather than K-based geopolymer matrix when adding low CNT dosage.

Recycling Clay Waste from Excavation, Demolition, and Construction: Trends and Challenges

The recycling of clay waste from construction debris highly depends on the chemical and mineralogical composition of the waste. Clays and clay minerals are known to be among marginal construction waste, representing an interesting opportunity and platform to produce other low-cost and low-carbon materials due to their possibilities for functional material design, such as adsorbents, drug delivery, catalysts and photocatalysts, and nanocomposites. The present review analyzes a wide variety of mechanisms for encapsulating organic and inorganic species between the layers of clay minerals. Through the compilation of advances in acid activation, exchange of inorganic cations, intercalation, and pillarization, new applications for clay materials are generated, paving the way to a nanometric world with functional, magnetic, adsorption, and catalytic capabilities. New trends are consolidated in the reuse of recycled clays in infrastructure projects, such as hydraulic concrete, water purification, soil fertility, pigments and paints, food packaging and storage, and ceramic appliances. It is concluded that clay waste is suitable to reuse in many industrial products and construction materials, enabling a reduction in the consumption of raw materials.

Actor perceptions and network characteristics around climate-wise housing and construction in Finland

ABSTRACT Interaction between actors in sustainability transition is fundamental for generating knowledge about what constitutes a just, equitable and sustainable society. This paper focuses on the Finnish housing and construction sector as a socio-technical system, which currently accounts for about 40% of energy consumption and 35% of greenhouse gas emissions. A qualitative interview study with 18 organizations and a larger network study involving 35 actors were conducted to address the research questions: How do actors constitute a network and define climate-wise housing and construction? What specific focus areas can be identified around climate action? What issues support or inhibit climate-wise housing and construction? Although the network appeared relatively dense and inclusive, misalignment emerged upon closer examination. The actors were uniformly engaged in energy-related topics, but differed in their emphasis level on household choices, low-carbon materials, and the circular economy. Supporting and inhibiting factors were identified within three broad categories: alignment of goals, network characteristics, and transformation propensity. The findings suggest that climate action is gaining ground in housing and construction, but there is evidence of institutional inertia, a demand for accelerating support for intermediation, and a need to harness organizational resources and individual capabilities to create sustainability transitions.

Accelerated Bridge Construction Case: A Novel Low-Carbon and Assembled Composite Bridge Scheme

Modern bridge construction towards a higher degree of low carbonization and assembly has been the general trend, while developing and broadening the low-carbon and assembled-oriented Accelerated Bridge Construction (ABC) technology can better realize the trade-offs between construction quality, efficiency, cost and sustainability. In the current mainstream ABC technologies such as precast-assembled concrete bridge and assembled steel bridge schemes, it is difficult to achieve an excellent balance between the above multicriterion trade-offs. To this end, this paper proposes a novel low-carbon and assembled composite bridge scheme as an innovative case of ABC technology based on a 26.7 km-length urban viaduct project in China with urgent environmental protection and assembly demands. Construction sustainability, the comprehensive economy and low-carbon performance are well balanced by the collaborative application of new steel–concrete composite structures, the rapid assembly interface design and low-carbon material technologies. The proposed scheme has been applied to a completed real-scale bridge, and the whole construction process only experienced 105 days of effective time, accompanied with slight environmental interference and construction noise and a small amount of labor and equipment input. In addition, the safety of the bridge, the rationality of the design concept and the calculation method have been verified by the static and dynamic loading tests of the real-scale bridge.

A holistic life cycle assessment of steel bridge deck pavement

Transportation serves as a cornerstone of economic development and is a significant contributor to carbon emissions. This study established a life cycle assessment model that incorporates refined carbon emission calculation parameters, streamlining the computation process while maintaining precision. A case study was conducted to quantify the life-cycle CO2 emissions of steel bridge deck pavements, a pivotal component within the transport network. The study suggests using the average annual CO2 emissions as a metric to gauge the carbon emission potential of steel bridge deck pavements with different service lives. This study addresses a void in the existing work by standardizing the grading of typical pavement diseases and quantifying the carbon emissions of the corresponding maintenance measures. It reveals that the pivotal determinant of life-cycle CO2 emissions for steel bridge deck pavements is the service performance of the paving material. Comparative analysis indicates that epoxy asphalt concrete could be deemed a low-carbon material, achieving a 77.6% reduction in life-cycle carbon emissions compared to gussasphalt concrete. Emissions during the maintenance phase constitute 66.7%–71.4% of the total life-cycle emissions, predominantly due to end-of-life and traffic delay units. The methodology and calculated data presented herein can inform subsequent carbon reduction strategies in transportation and promote the development of resilient infrastructure, thus making a substantial contribution towards carbon neutrality and climate change mitigation.

Examining Low-Carbon Material Initiatives: Existing Policies, Impacts on the Procurement of Projects, Current Challenges, and Potential Solutions to Reduce Embodied Carbon in the Construction Industry

Examining Low-Carbon Material Initiatives: Existing Policies, Impacts on the Procurement of Projects, Current Challenges, and Potential Solutions to Reduce Embodied Carbon in the Construction Industry

Improved macro-microscopic characteristic of gypsum-slag based cementitious materials by incorporating red mud/carbide slag binary alkaline waste-derived activator

The expensive cost and high carbon footprint of commercial alkaline activators hindered the promotion and industrialization of geopolymers. The rising demand for geopolymer as low carbon and excellent building materials will lead to enormous research works towards to low carbon alkaline activator. This study aimed to explore the impact of red mud (RM)/carbide slag (CS) binary alkaline wasted-derived activator (RCA) on the macroscopic and microscopic properties of RCA activated cementitious materials (RCM) prepared with titanium gypsum (TiG) and granulated blast furnace slag (GBFS). It is proposed to adjust the pH value of solid waste powder for calibrating the waste-derived activator, prepare RCM and explore the relationship between its mechanical properties and hydration products. The research showed that the highest flexural and compressive strengths at 28 days occurred with a dosage of 0.8 wt% CS, meeting the strength requirements of 52.5 R Portland cement. It is worth noting that RCM with binary alkaline waste-derived activators with appropriate pH values can exhibit excellent early mechanical properties. Raising the pH of RCA significantly improves the compressive and flexural strength, increasing them to 30.7 MPa and 6.3 MPa at 3 d, and to 60.7 MPa and 10.8 MPa at 28 d. The primary hydration products of RCM include C(N)-A-S-H gels, ettringite, and gypsum crystal phase, which contribute to the development of mechanical strength. Due to the difference in the alkaline environment required for the growth of C(N)-A-S-H gel and ettringite crystal, the increase in RCA pH value has been found to both inhibit the growth of ettringite to a certain extent and promote the precipitation of C(N)-A-S-H gels, improving the chemical structure of the hydration products and the pore distribution characteristics of the RCM. Furthermore, the research has been successfully applied in a pilot test in Jiaozuo, China. RCM introduces a novel concept for the efficient and industrial-scale utilization of solid waste. This study can provide a fundamental academic and industrialized support and a novel concept for the whole solid waste cementitious materials especially from alkaline industrial solid wastes such as RM and CS.

A review on suitable eco-friendly earth sustainable construction building material

This paper summarizes research on environmentally friendly and low embodied energy construction materials. Embedded electricity is defined and addressed in terms of building running power, and its significance is increasing as a result the Energy Buildings Performance Directive (EBPD) adoption in the European continent, for instance. The problems of calculating Energy that is embodied through comparison of current data are examined, along with a concrete instance of a novel approach presented in different literature. The link between embodied energy and embodied CO2, also known as carbon footprint, is illustrated. The literature discusses a wide range of low-carbon materials, including concrete and cement, as well as hardwood, stones, rammed earth, and even brickwork. The study focuses on prior research efforts to create new substances with lower contained power. To conclude, the research investigates the effects of material substitution on a building’s internal energy.