Low-altitude Satellite Research Articles

Computational mission analysis and conceptual system design for super low altitude satellite

Computational mission analysis and conceptual system design for super low altitude satellite

Geologic mapping of Vesta

We report on a preliminary global geologic map of Vesta, based on data from the Dawn spacecraft’s High-Altitude Mapping Orbit (HAMO) and informed by Low-Altitude Mapping Orbit (LAMO) data. This map is part of an iterative mapping effort; the geologic map has been refined with each improvement in resolution. Vesta has a heavily-cratered surface, with large craters evident in numerous locations. The south pole is dominated by an impact structure identified before Dawn’s arrival. Two large impact structures have been resolved: the younger, larger Rheasilvia structure, and the older, more degraded Veneneia structure. The surface is also characterized by a system of deep, globe-girdling equatorial troughs and ridges, as well as an older system of troughs and ridges to the north. Troughs and ridges are also evident cutting across, and spiraling arcuately from, the Rheasilvia central mound. However, no volcanic features have been unequivocally identified. Vesta can be divided very broadly into three terrains: heavily-cratered terrain; ridge-and-trough terrain (equatorial and northern); and terrain associated with the Rheasilvia crater. Localized features include bright and dark material and ejecta (some defined specifically by color); lobate deposits; and mass-wasting materials. No obvious volcanic features are evident. Stratigraphy of Vesta’s geologic units suggests a history in which formation of a primary crust was followed by the formation of impact craters, including Veneneia and the associated Saturnalia Fossae unit. Formation of Rheasilvia followed, along with associated structural deformation that shaped the Divalia Fossae ridge-and-trough unit at the equator. Subsequent impacts and mass wasting events subdued impact craters, rims and portions of ridge-and-trough sets, and formed slumps and landslides, especially within crater floors and along crater rims and scarps. Subsequent to the formation of Rheasilvia, discontinuous low-albedo deposits formed or were emplaced; these lie stratigraphically above the equatorial ridges that likely were formed by Rheasilvia. The last features to be formed were craters with bright rays and other surface mantling deposits. Executed progressively throughout data acquisition, the iterative mapping process provided the team with geologic proto-units in a timely manner. However, interpretation of the resulting map was hampered by the necessity to provide the team with a standard nomenclature and symbology early in the process. With regard to mapping and interpreting units, the mapping process was hindered by the lack of calibrated mineralogic information. Topography and shadow played an important role in discriminating features and terrains, especially in the early stages of data acquisition.

Use of the Comprehensive Inversion method for Swarm satellite data analysis

An advanced algorithm, known as the “Comprehensive Inversion” (CI), is presented for the analysis of Swarm measurements to generate a consistent set of Level-2 data products to be delivered by the Swarm “Satellite Constellation Application and Research Facility” (SCARF) to the European Space Agency (ESA). This new algorithm improves on a previously developed version in several ways, including the ability to process ground-based observatory data, estimation of rotations describing the alignment of vector magnetometer measurements with a known reference system, and the inclusion of ionospheric induction effects due to an a priori 3-dimensional conductivity model. However, the most substantial improvements entail the application of a mechanism termed “Selective Infinite Variance Weighting” (SIVW), which mitigates the effects of non-zero mean systematic noise and allows for the exploitation of gradient information from the low-altitude Swarm satellite pair to determine small-scale lithospheric fields, and an improvement in the treatment of attitude error due to noise in star-tracking systems over previously established methods. The advanced CI algorithm is validated by applying it to synthetic data from a full simulation of the Swarm mission, where it is found to significantly exceed all mandatory and most target accuracy requirements.

Lobate and flow-like features on asteroid Vesta

We studied high-resolution images of asteroid Vesta's surface (~70 and 20–25m/pixel) obtained during the High- and Low-Altitude Mapping Orbits (HAMO, LAMO) of NASA's Dawn mission to assess the formation mechanisms responsible for a variety of lobate, flow-like features observed across the surface. We searched for evidence of volcanic flows, based on prior mathematical modeling and the well-known basaltic nature of Vesta's crust, but no unequivocal morphologic evidence of ancient volcanic activity has thus far been identified. Rather, we find that all lobate, flow-like features on Vesta appear to be related either to impact or erosional processes. Morphologically distinct lobate features occur in and around impact craters, and most of these are interpreted as impact ejecta flows, or possibly flows of impact melt. Estimates of melt production from numerical models and scaling laws suggests that large craters like Marcia (~60km diameter) could have potentially produced impact melt volumes ranging from tens of millions of cubic meters to a few tens of cubic kilometers, which are relatively small volumes compared to similar-sized lunar craters, but which are consistent with putative impact melt features observed in Dawn images. There are also examples of lobate flows that trend downhill both inside and outside of crater rims and basin scarps, which are interpreted as the result of gravity-driven mass movements (slumps and landslides).

Closed-Form Approximation of Revisit Rate for Low-Altitude Satellites

For many applications of low-altitude spacecraft, it is important to know how often the spacecraft revisits a given target. Average revisits per day can be calculated for a given scenario using astrodynamic software, but that approach can be tedious if a large number of cases are to be compared. This paper develops a closed-form, continuous, and piecewise differentiable function that gives average revisits per day as a function of orbit altitude, orbit inclination, target latitude, and minimum required elevation. The function is compared with the results of astrodynamic simulations and shown to be accurate to within 0.08 passes per day and 1% in almost all cases. It allows instant calculation of an excellent approximation of this important performance parameter and could be used as part of an optimization routine. The convenience and flexibility provided by this function are demonstrated in a series of charts showing passes per day as a function of one, two, and three variables. The function assumes a circular orbit; the sensitivity of the result to eccentricity is explored using astrodynamic simulations and is found to decrease by 5.3% as eccentricity increases to 0.07 for a typical case.

State propagation in an uncertain asteroid gravity field

Various spacecraft have been and will be sent to asteroids to characterize them. Generally, an asteroid's gravity field is very irregular and not accurately known when compared to the gravity field of a major planet, Earth in particular. It has been well studied that the irregularity significantly affects the trajectory of an orbiting spacecraft, and causes it to impact or to escape from the asteroid. Complementary to that, this paper focuses on the influence of the limited knowledge of this gravity field on the evolution of the spacecraft's orbit. It develops a general method by which this influence can be quantified. This method comprises specific Monte Carlo simulations with a discrete set of low-altitude orbits, taking into account the uncertainties in the gravity-field parameters. For illustration purposes, it is applied to two different asteroids. Already after three revolutions, the gravity-field uncertainties propagate to significant position uncertainties; this specifically holds for prograde orbits, and around the smaller asteroid. Applying this robust and accurate method helps mission designers and planners to assess the risk posed by gravity uncertainties, and take appropriate measures such as choosing the most favorable orbital geometries and/or lowering the orbit more slowly.

A series expansion of the solid Earth tide effect on geopotential

We develop analytical series representing the main part of corrections to the geopotential coefficients caused by the solid Earth tides, where Love numbers are assumed to be frequency-independent. The series are compact, precise and valid over 1800 A.D.–2200 A.D. The maximum difference between the corrections given by the analytical series and their numerical values, obtained with use of the DE/LE-423 planetary/lunar ephemerides, does not exceed \(0.7\times 10^{-12}\). A new algorithm is proposed for calculating amplitudes of the additional variations of the geopotential coefficients for frequency dependence of Love numbers. It uses the representation of the Earth tide-generating potential in the standard HW95 format and takes into account the phase of tidal waves. Corrections of up to \(2\times 10^{-12}\) to the published by the IERS Conventions (2010) amplitudes of the additional variations of the geopotential coefficients are suggested. Examples of use of the obtained series in analytical theories of motion of low-altitude STARLETTE and high-altitude ETALON-1 satellites are given.

DelFFi: formation flying of two CubeSats for technology, education and science

Under the QB50 framework, the Delft University of Technology are developing a formation flying mission called DelFFi. The objectives of the DelFFi mission are to demonstrate advanced formation flying technologies with CubeSats, provide an educational framework for students and enable enhanced science return from the QB50. Both satellites will be identical triple-unit CubeSats, each being equipped with a highly miniaturised propulsion system in addition to the science payload. This configuration will allow to demonstrate advanced formation flying as well as scientific data collection. Based on an analysis of guidance, navigation and control needs for formation flying in very low altitude orbits, a staggered approach of increasingly complex operational scenarios for formation flying is developed, analysed and discussed. Implementation options for critical enabling formation flying technology and platform subsystems are presented.

Ionospheric perturbations observed by the low altitude satellite DEMETER and possible relation with seismicity

The high-altitude ionospheric perturbations around the equatorial anomalies (EA) are often observed by DEMETER spacecraft on the nighttime orbits. The ionospheric perturbations are recognized as an enhancement of the electric field in the ELF frequency range in the satellite coordinate. Clear perturbations are mostly recognized on the dayside of the satellite orbit and the peak perturbation intensity tends to increase with increasing magnetic latitude based on around 1000 perturbation events observed in the year of 2005. The perturbation intensities are examined in relation with major seismic activities. As a result, most importantly higher perturbation intensity persists for the time periods around the occurrence days of the land earthquakes rather than those for the sea earthquakes and without major earthquakes nearby. However, the difference of the observed perturbation intensity between above-mentioned three cases are rather small due to relatively large variability indicative of the weak correlation of seismicity with the high altitude ionospheric perturbations near EA.

AKR‐like emissions observed at low altitude by the DEMETER satellite

This paper reports observations of Auroral Kilometric Radiation (AKR) by the low altitude satellite DEMETER (700 km) during the super magnetic storm of November 2004. AKR is generated along auroral field lines at altitudes above ∼3000 km and escapes from the Earth so that most observations have been made close to the source regions or at large distances from the Earth. However, EM waves with AKR‐like frequency spectra detected by the low altitude EXOS‐C satellite were interpreted by Oya et al. (1985) as AKR emissions propagating toward the Earth in the whistler mode. During the large magnetic storm of November 8–10, 2004, numerous events have been observed by DEMETER and, in one case, the emissions were recorded when DEMETER was flying over an intense aurora observed by the UVI (Ultra Violet Imager) of the POLAR spacecraft. During this event, density depletions have been observed at the satellite altitude. Similar AKR‐like EM waves were also recorded by DEMETER at other times showing that these emissions are a common phenomenon at low altitudes in the auroral regions during periods of sustained magnetic activity.

"Real time analysis" of the ion density measured by the satellite DEMETER in relation with the seismic activity

Abstract. This paper is related to the study of the ion density recorded by the low altitude satellite DEMETER. In a first time there is an automatic search for ionospheric perturbations in the complete satellite data set of ion densities. Then perturbations due to known ionospheric phenomena (for example, solar activity) are eliminated as well as perturbations not above a seismic zone. In a second time, there is a search to know if each selected perturbation corresponds to a future earthquake. The earthquakes have been classified depending on their magnitude and depth. This attempt to predict earthquakes of course generates false alarms and wrong detections. The results of this statistical analysis are presented as function of various parameters. It is shown that the number of false alarms is very important, because the ionosphere has variations not only linked to the seismic activity. The number of wrong detections is also important and can be explained by the fact that the satellite is above a seismic area only a few minutes per day and we do not expect continuous perturbations from a given earthquake. The more important results of this study is that the ratio between detected earthquakes and earthquakes to be detected increases with the magnitude of the earthquakes which intuitively makes sense.

Parallel computation of satellite orbit acceleration

We present a formulation of parallel computation of the satellite orbit acceleration due to non-spherical gravitational field. The key techniques are the vector computation of associated Legendre functions and the do-loop folding. These are easily implemented by a slight modification of existing programs and by embedding a few OpenMP directives. The formulation significantly speeds up the orbit integrations of low-altitude satellites. For example, that of GRACE under the influence of EGM2008, a 2190×2159 geopotential model runs around 4 times faster than the serial computation if conducted at a PC with a quad-core 8-thread processor.

Experimental evidence of the simultaneous occurrence of VLF chorus on the ground in the global azimuthal scale – from pre-midnight to the late morning

Abstract. Night-time VLF (very low frequency) chorus bursts lasting about one hour have been recorded at Finnish temporal station Kannuslehto (CGM: 64.2°; 107.9°, L = 5.3) during two VLF campaigns (on 25 February–4 March 2008 and 27 March–17 April 2011). The chorus bursts were associated with substorm development. They were accompanied by riometer absorption enhancements, which occurred simultaneously within as large longitude areas as from pre-midnight (Sodankylä, ~22:00 MLT) to the late morning (Tixie, ~03:00 MLT and Gakona, ~08:00 MLT) longitudes. It was found that the pre-midnight chorus observed on the ground occurred simultaneously with VLF chorus emissions recorded in the late morning on the low-altitude DEMETER satellite crossing the similar geomagnetic latitudes on the opposite local time sector. For the first time some evidence of simultaneous chorus burst generation in the global longitudinal scale was found (from pre-midnight to the late morning) by using direct comparison with satellite data as well as using non-direct indicator–azimuthally extended riometer absorption enhancements.

Statistical analysis of automatically detected ion density variations recorded by DEMETER and their relation to seismic activity

Many examples of ionospheric perturbations observed during large seismic events were recorded by the low-altitude satellite DEMETER. However, there are also ionospheric variations without seismic activity. The present study is devoted to a statistical analysis of the night-time ion density variations. Software was implemented to detect variations in the data before earthquakes world-wide. Earthquakes with magnitudes >4.8 were selected and classified according to their magnitudes, depths and locations (land, close to the coast, or below the sea). For each earthquake, an automatic search for ion density variations was conducted from 15 days before the earthquake, when the track of the satellite orbit was at less than 1,500 km from the earthquake epicenter. The result of this first step provided the variations relative to the background in the vicinity of the epicenter for each 15 days before each earthquake. In the second step, comparisons were carried out between the largest variations over the 15 days and the earthquake magnitudes. The statistical analysis is based on calculation of the median values as a function of the various seismic parameters (magnitude, depth, location). A comparison was also carried out with two other databases, where on the one hand, the locations of the epicenters were randomly modified, and on the other hand, the longitudes of the epicenters were shifted. The results show that the intensities of the ionospheric perturbations are larger prior to the earthquakes than prior to random events, and that the perturbations increase with the earthquake magnitudes.

Relaxation of electron and proton radiation belts of the earth after strong magnetic storms

During strong magnetic storms in July and November of 2004 the fluxes of trapped particles (protons and electrons of MeV energies) in the Earth’s radiation belts have increased by orders of magnitude and then decreased remaining on an enhanced level for several months. These enhancements allowed us to study the processes of relaxation of the radiation belts. Measurements of energetic particles by low-altitude satellites Coronas-F and Servis-1 have shown that predictions of the theory about the rate of pitch-angle diffusion are not always correct, giving both overestimated and underestimated values for the lifetime of energetic particles.

Extreme changes in the dayside ionosphere during a Carrington-type magnetic storm

It is shown that during the 30 October 2003 superstorm, dayside O+ ions were uplifted to DMSP altitudes (~850 km). Peak densities were ~9 × 105 cm−3 during the magnetic storm main phase (peak Dst = −390 nT). By comparison the 1–2 September 1859 Carrington magnetic storm (peak Dst estimated at −1760 nT) was considerably stronger. We investigate the impact of this storm on the low- to mid-latitude ionosphere using a modified version of the NRL SAMI2 ionospheric code. It is found that the equatorial region (LAT = 0° ± 15°) is swept free of plasma within 15 min (or less) of storm onset. The plasma is swept to higher altitudes and higher latitudes due to E × B convection associated with the prompt penetration electric field. Equatorial Ionization Anomaly (EIA) O+ density enhancements are found to be located within the broad range of latitudes ~ ± (25°–40°) at ~500–900 km altitudes. Densities within these peaks are ~6 × 106 oxygen ions-cm−3 at ~700 km altitude, approximately +600% quiet time values. The oxygen ions at the top portions (850–1000 km) of uplifted EIAs will cause strong low-altitude satellite drag. Calculations are currently being performed on possible uplift of oxygen neutrals by ion-neutral coupling to understand if there might be further significant satellite drag forces present.

Aerobraking at Venus: A science and technology enabler

Venus remains one of the great unexplored planets in our solar system, with key questions remaining on the evolution of its atmosphere and climate, its volatile cycles, and the thermal and magmatic evolution of its surface. One potential approach toward answering these questions is to fly a reconnaissance mission that uses a multi-mode radar in a near-circular, low-altitude orbit of ∼400km and 60–70° inclination. This type of mission profile results in a total mission delta-V of ∼4.4km/s. Aerobraking could provide a significant portion, potentially up to half, of this energy transfer, thereby permitting more mass to be allocated to the spacecraft and science payload or facilitating the use of smaller, cheaper launch vehicles.Aerobraking at Venus also provides additional science benefits through the measurement of upper atmospheric density (recovered from accelerometer data) and temperature values, especially near the terminator where temperature changes are abrupt and constant pressure levels drop dramatically in altitude from day to night.Scientifically rich, Venus is also an ideal location for implementing aerobraking techniques. Its thick lower atmosphere and slow planet rotation result in relatively more predictable atmospheric densities than Mars. The upper atmosphere (aerobraking altitudes) of Venus has a density variation of 8% compared to Mars' 30% variability. In general, most aerobraking missions try to minimize the duration of the aerobraking phase to keep costs down. These short phases have limited margin to account for contingencies. It is the stable and predictive nature of Venus' atmosphere that provides safer aerobraking opportunities.The nature of aerobraking at Venus provides ideal opportunities to demonstrate aerobraking enhancements and techniques yet to be used at Mars, such as flying a temperature corridor (versus a heat-rate corridor) and using a thermal-response surface algorithm and autonomous aerobraking, shifting many daily ground activities to onboard the spacecraft. A defined aerobraking temperature corridor, based on spacecraft component maximum temperatures, can be employed on a spacecraft specifically designed for aerobraking, and will predict subsequent aerobraking orbits and prescribe apoapsis propulsive maneuvers to maintain the spacecraft within its specified temperature limits. A spacecraft specifically designed for aerobraking in the Venus environment can provide a cost-effective platform for achieving these expanded science and technology goals.This paper discusses the scientific merits of a low-altitude, near-circular orbit at Venus, highlights the differences in aerobraking at Venus versus Mars, and presents design data using a flight system specifically designed for an aerobraking mission at Venus. Using aerobraking to achieve a low altitude orbit at Venus may pave the way for various technology demonstrations, such as autonomous aerobraking techniques and/or new science measurements like a multi-mode, synthetic aperture radar capable of altimetry and radiometry with performance that is significantly more capable than Magellan.

Low-altitude, near-polar and near-circular orbits around Europa

The dynamics of orbits around planetary satellites, taking into account the gravitational attraction of a third-body and the non-uniform distribution of mass of the planetary satellite, is studied. The Hamiltonian considered is explicitly time-dependent. Conditions for frozen orbits are presented. Low-altitude, near-polar orbits, very desirable for scientific missions to study planetary satellites such as the Jupiter’s moon Europa, are analyzed. Lifetimes for these orbits are computed through the single and double averaged method. Comparison between the results obtained by the single and double averaged method is presented. The single-averaged model is more realistic, since it does not eliminate the term due to the equatorial ellipticity of the planetary satellite as done by the double-averaged problem. Considering the single-averaged method, we found unstable frozen orbits where the satellite does not impact with the surface of Europa for at least 200days. We present an approach using the unaveraged disturbing potential to analyze the effects of these terms in the amplitude of the eccentricity.

Statistical analysis of the ion density measured by the satellite DEMETER in relation with the seismic activity

This paper is related to study of the ion density recorded by the low altitude satellite DEMETER. It will present ionospheric perturbations observed during large seismic events. As the ionosphere is highly variable, the paper will show a statistical analysis performed on the plasma parameters during night time. An algorithm has been implemented to detect crests and troughs in the data before world-wide earthquakes. The earthquakes have been classified depending on their magnitude, depth, and location (land, below the sea, close to a coast). Due to the orbit, DEMETER returns above the same area every day (once during day time, once during night time) but not at the same distance of a given epicenter. Then, for each earthquake, data have been checked until 15 days before the shock when the distance between the trace of the orbit and the epicenter is less than 1 500 km. The results of the statistical analysis are presented as functions of various parameters. A comparison is done with two other databases where, on one hand, the location of the epicenters has been randomly modified, and on the other hand, the longitude of the epicenters has been shifted. Results show that the number and the intensity of the ionospheric perturbations are larger prior to earthquakes than prior to random events, and that the perturbations increase with the magnitude.

Truncated VLF Saucers Observed by the Low Altitude Satellite DEMETER

We report DEMETER observations of a truncated VLF (Very Low Frequency) saucer in the auroral ionosphere. The very unusual shape of the frequency-time spectrogram arises from the sharp disappearance of the emissions below a frequency which displays a small and regular variation along the orbit. This low frequency cutoff results from the altitude variation of the LHF (Lower Hybrid Frequency) which is higher below the satellite than at the satellite altitude.