Lot Area Research Articles

일본도심근교의 저층주거지 계획특성 조사연구

The purposes of this research is looking for planning characteristics to improve residential satisfaction of low-rise residential areas. Through analysis framework drawn by previous research, 7 low-rise residential sample areas in the suburbs of Japan is investigated by town territory and residential satisfactions. Also, to investigate the characteristics of the street-network with pedestrian and road, using space syntax (VGA, depthmap program) were analyzed. As a result, analysis target areas are satisfied with target-specific basic needs and street areas show the various planning guide line for satisfy social needs. Areal key planning characteristics are (1) town area : improvement of town territoriality and recognition, forming community space (2) street area : a variety of pedestrian-oriented street, pathway as walking network, autonomous traffic control (3) lot area : enhanced the privacy of building, formation of attachment space in front of the house, a variety of parking spaces. Analysis planning guide line derived from target areas can be applied not only the established place of the domestic housing but also urban regeneration plans for low-rise residential area in old built-up area.

Indoor air quality (IAQ) assessment in a multistorey shopping mall by high-spatial-resolution monitoring of volatile organic compounds (VOC)

In order to assess indoor air quality (IAQ), two 1-week monitoring campaigns of volatile organic compounds (VOC) were performed in different areas of a multistorey shopping mall. High-spatial-resolution monitoring was conducted at 32 indoor sites located in two storehouses and in different departments of a supermarket. At the same time, VOC concentrations were monitored in the mall and parking lot area as well as outdoors. VOC were sampled at 48-h periods using diffusive samplers suitable for thermal desorption. The samples were then analyzed with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The data analysis and chromatic maps indicated that the two storehouses had the highest VOC concentrations consisting principally of terpenes. These higher TVOC concentrations could be a result of the low efficiency of the air exchange and intake systems, as well as the large quantity of articles stored in these small spaces. Instead, inside the supermarket, the food department was the most critical area for VOC concentrations. To identify potential emission sources in this department, a continuous VOC analyzer was used. The findings indicated that the highest total VOC concentrations were present during cleaning activities and that these activities were carried out frequently in the food department. The study highlights the importance of conducting both high-spatial-resolution monitoring and high-temporal-resolution monitoring. The former was able to identify critical issues in environments with a complex emission scenario while the latter was useful in interpreting the dynamics of each emission source.

Coal-tar pavement sealant use and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon contamination in urban stream sediments

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) can occur at levels of environmental concern in stream sediments from urban and industrial watersheds. Recent studies indicate that coal-tar sealant use on parking lots may have been the major source of PAHs to urban streams in the eastern US over the past 40 years. This study evaluates the spatial distribution of PAHs in urban stream and pond sediments in Galloway Creek in Springfield, Missouri by focusing specifically on parking lots with and without coal-tar sealants as contamination source areas. Multiple-linear regression analysis is used to evaluate the spatial connectivity of contaminated sediment to potential source areas and compare the relative influence of watershed source factors and reach sediment variability on sediment PAH levels. Sediments from coal-tar sealed parking lots and the streams that drain them are enriched in PAHs at concentrations considered toxic to aquatic life, with concentrations that are, on average, 35 and 480 times greater than those of unsealed asphalt and concrete lots, respectively. Moreover, sediment PAH concentrations are strongly correlated with the percentage of sealed parking lot area within the upstream drainage area of the sampling site, in contrast to total parking lot area or sediment composition. Metal and nutrient contaminants are poorly correlated with sealed lot area indicating a wider range of urban source inputs. Finally, parking lots with coal-tar coatings contribute >80% of the total PAH concentration in urban stream and pond sediments in Galloway Creek. If coal-tar sealant use ended, sediment PAH concentrations would probably decrease over time to levels not harmful to sediment-dwelling organisms.

Assessment of heavy metals in sediments of the Don Hoi Lot area in the Mae Klong estuary, Thailand

The status and seasonal variation of heavy metals in surface sediment were investigated at Don Hoi Lot, located in the Mae Klong estuary, Thailand. Results revealed that all the measured heavy metals, except Zn, in the sediments had lower concentrations than in other nearby estuaries. Only Zn may be of concern for potential negative effects on estuarine biota in the study area. With the exception of Fe, all the studied heavy metals showed seasonal variation, but the patterns were diverse. Organic matter and the clay fraction in sediments were good sinks for heavy metals, excluding Zn, while Fe and Mn were good catchers. Principal component analysis suggested that Zn might have different origins and/or mechanisms of transport, accumulation and circulation, compared with the other heavy metals studied. A better understanding of sources and the behavior of Zn would enhance the efficiency of the estuary management plan in this study area.

Quantifying impervious surface changes using time series planimetric data from 1940 to 2011 in four central Iowa cities, U.S.A

Rapid expansion of urban areas has been identified as a significant challenge for management of natural systems in and around cities and for their residents. As a starting point, urban expansion must be quantified before it can be associated with other natural or social processes. Although spatial metrics have been used previously to quantify urban expansion, they have only rarely been applied to planimetric data. Using multi-year high-resolution planimetric data, a percent impervious surface-based zoning strategy, and six spatial metrics, we quantified impervious surface (IS) changes in four rapidly growing cities in central Iowa, U.S.A. from 1940 to 2011. We documented increases in IS area over time, primarily due to increases in buildings and parking lot areas in the most recent 20 years. Application of a new spatial metric, percent connected impervious surface area, indicated increasingly connected IS area throughout the period of study. Application of a second new metric, road equivalent width, indicated gradual increases in road width over time. Distinct spatial patterns of change for IS classes occurred in the three different percent IS zones, with roads dominating low percent IS zones, buildings dominating medium percent IS zones, and parking lots dominating high percent IS zones. Use of low impact practices (pervious pavement, bioswales, sand filters) is recommended to minimize impact from expanding and increasingly connected IS areas. Further, land use policies and planning tools could be strategically implemented by targeting specific IS classes that dominate different city zones.

Current and potential carbon stocks of trees in urban parking lots in towns of the Eastern Cape, South Africa

Greening of shopping centre parking lots is a potentially important strategy that can contribute to urban carbon mitigation efforts, improve aesthetics and the shopping experience of consumers, whilst adding to urban biodiversity. Twenty-eight shopping centre parking lots in six Eastern Cape urban centres, South Africa, were sampled to determine tree species composition, density and annual carbon sequestration potential. The best case parking lot found during the study was used as a benchmark to display the difference between current tree density and above-ground carbon stocks relative to the potential optimum. The highest tree density was 66treesha−1, whereas the average density across all sampled parking lots was less than half that (27.2±22.6treesha−1). The average annual carbon sequestration potential per parking lot was 1390±2503kgha−1. Planting density was positively related to annual sequestration rates, whilst parking lot age and the mean annual rainfall of the town had no influence. Mean tree species richness per parking lot was 2.3±1.8 species, with a positive relationship to parking lot size, but not to mean annual rainfall of the site. The majority of trees (62.5%) in parking lots were alien species, although newer parking lots had significantly greater proportions of indigenous species. There was no difference in mean annual carbon sequestration rate per tree between indigenous and alien trees species. Low tree densities and small parking lot areas constrained the potential for earning carbon credits from trees in parking lots. Nonetheless, planners and designers need to be more aware of the potential contribution of trees towards urban sustainability.

Do parking requirements significantly increase the area dedicated to parking? A test of the effect of parking requirements values in Los Angeles County

Minimum parking requirements (MPRs) are the norm for urban and suburban development in the United States (Davidson et al., 2002). The justification for MPRs is that overflow parking will occupy nearby street or off-street parking. Shoup (1999a) and Willson (1995) provide cases where there is reason to believe that parking space requirements have forced parcel developers to place more parking than they would in the absence of parking requirements. However, to our knowledge the existing literature does not test the effect of parking minimums on the amount of lot space devoted to parking beyond a few case studies. This paper tests the hypothesis that MPRs bind for most land uses using data on suburban office, commercial, industrial and retail property sales from Los Angeles County using both direct and indirect approaches. Our indirect test of the effects of parking requirements is similar to the one used by Glaeser and Gyourko (2003). A simple theoretical model shows that the marginal value of additional parking to the sale price of a building should be equal to the cost of land plus the cost of parking construction. We estimate the marginal values of parking and lot area with spatial methods using a large data set from the Los Angeles area non-residential property sales and find that for most of the property types the marginal value of parking is significantly below that of the parcel area. In addition, we directly examine required and supplied parking and find that on average parking supplied is quite close to the required amount.

The Uneasy Case for Lower Parking Standards

Minimum parking requirements are the norm for urban and suburban development in the United States (Davidson and Dolnick (2002)). The justification for parking space requirements is that overflow parking will occupy nearby street or off-street parking. Shoup (1999) and Willson (1995) provides cases where there is reason to believe that parking space requirements have forced parcel developers to place more parking than they would in the absence of parking requirements. If the effect of parking minimums is to significantly increase the land area devoted to parking, then the increase in impervious surfaces would likely cause water quality degradation, increased flooding, and decreased groundwater recharge. However, to our knowledge the existing literature does not test the effect of parking minimums on the amount of lot space devoted to parking beyond a few case studies. This paper tests the hypothesis that parking space requirements cause an oversupply of parking by examining the implicit marginal value of land allocated to parking spaces. This is an indirect test of the effects of parking requirements that is similar to Glaeser and Gyourko (2003). A simple theoretical model shows that the marginal value of additional parking to the sale price should be equal to the cost of land plus the cost of parking construction. We estimate the marginal values of parking and lot area with spatial methods using a large data set from the Los Angeles area non-residential property sales and find that for most of the property types the marginal value of parking is significantly below that of the parcel area. This evidence supports the contention that minimum parking requirements significantly increase the amount of parcel area devoted to parking.

A Preliminary Study on Saving Parking Lot

Along with the development of society and the popularity of private cars, more and more parking lots are to be needed. Consequently, large sized parking lots will be built in many cities. But the traditional parking lots were paved by a large area of concrete. So much concrete will be bound to create heat pollution. Meanwhile, a large area of parking lot occupies mass openspace. The existing parking lots lead to a waste of resources. This paper introduces a new term of saving parking lot and presents some key principles that stem from a wide range of contributions. The newfashioned parking lot may also give rise to the sustainable development.

Emissions of Ammonia, Methane, Carbon Dioxide, and Nitrous Oxide from Dairy Cattle Housing and Manure Management Systems

Concentrated animal feeding operations emit trace gases such as ammonia (NH₃), methane (CH₄), carbon dioxide (CO₂), and nitrous oxide (N₂O). The implementation of air quality regulations in livestock-producing states increases the need for accurate on-farm determination of emission rates. The objective of this study was to determine the emission rates of NH₃, CH₄, CO₂, and N₂O from three source areas (open lots, wastewater pond, compost) on a commercial dairy located in southern Idaho. Gas concentrations and wind statistics were measured each month and used with an inverse dispersion model to calculate emission rates. Average emissions per cow per day from the open lots were 0.13 kg NH₃, 0.49 kg CH₄, 28.1 kg CO₂, and 0.01 kg N₂O. Average emissions from the wastewater pond (g m(-2) d(-1)) were 2.0 g NH₃, 103 g CH₄, 637 g CO₂, and 0.49 g N₂O. Average emissions from the compost facility (g m(-2) d(-1)) were 1.6 g NH₃, 13.5 g CH₄, 516 g CO₂, and 0.90 g N₂O. The combined emissions of NH₃, CH₄, CO₂, and N₂O from the lots, wastewater pond and compost averaged 0.15, 1.4, 30.0, and 0.02 kg cow(-1) d(-1), respectively. The open lot areas generated the greatest emissions of NH₃, CO₂, and N₂O, contributing 78, 80, and 57%, respectively, to total farm emissions. Methane emissions were greatest from the lots in the spring (74% of total), after which the wastewater pond became the largest source of emissions (55% of total) for the remainder of the year. Data from this study can be used to develop trace gas emissions factors from open-lot dairies in southern Idaho and potentially other open-lot production systems in similar climatic regions.

The Mind, Body & Spirits Inspired Dining Organic Restaurant

The new Mind, Body & Spirits Inspired Dining Organic Restaurant, located at 301 S. Main Street in downtown Rochester, MI, opened in November of 2008. It is located on the southwest corner of S. Main Street and W. Third Street. It is housed in an existing two-story brick building with a full basement and has a New Greenhouse / Kitchen / Restrooms / Dining Deck Addition located in the former rear parking lot area to the west.

From Middle to Upper Class Sprawl? Land Use Controls and Changing Patterns of Real Estate Development in Northern New Jersey

During the past twenty-five years the land use controls that shape residential real estate development in the United States have changed in potentially significant ways. From the 1950s to the 1980s, land use laws promoted middle-class sprawl by reserving extensive tracts of land for the construction of moderately priced, single-family homes on lots of less than one acre. More recently, suburbs have adopted land use controls that promote upper class sprawl by reserving large areas for the construction of small numbers of expensive homes on spacious lots. This regulatory shift can be explained in several ways: a homevoter hypothesis that derives the new controls from the economic interests of suburban homeowners and a regional spillover hypothesis that attributes the adoption of new controls to desires by planning commissioners, consultants, and nongovernmental organizations to do as other communities are doing. We assess these explanations through a case study of changing land use controls in the suburban New Jersey Highlands west of New York City. Between 1975 and 2002 the region saw large increases in preserved open space, a doubling of the required minimum lot area for houses, increases in the real price of housing, declines in the number of newly constructed homes, and a shift in residential real estate development toward the urban core. Multivariate analyses of the changes in land use controls support the regional spillover hypothesis. The implications of this dynamic for conservation policies, environmental injustices, and greenhouse gas emissions are briefly explored.

Clustered lot quality assurance sampling: a pragmatic tool for timely assessment of vaccination coverage

To evaluate oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV) coverage of the November 2009 round in five Northern Nigeria states with ongoing wild poliovirus transmission using clustered lot quality assurance sampling (CLQAS). We selected four local government areas in each pre-selected state and sampled six clusters of 10 children in each Local Government Area, defined as the lot area. We used three decision thresholds to classify OPV coverage: 75-90%, 55-70% and 35-50%. A full lot was completed, but we also assessed in retrospect the potential time-saving benefits of stopping sampling when a lot had been classified. We accepted two local government areas (LGAs) with vaccination coverage above 75%. Of the remaining 18 rejected LGAs, 11 also failed to reach 70% coverage, of which four also failed to reach 50%. The average time taken to complete a lot was 10 h. By stopping sampling when a decision was reached, we could have classified lots in 5.3, 7.7 and 7.3 h on average at the 90%, 70% and 50% coverage targets, respectively. Clustered lot quality assurance sampling was feasible and useful to estimate OPV coverage in Northern Nigeria. The multi-threshold approach provided useful information on the variation of IPD vaccination coverage. CLQAS is a very timely tool, allowing corrective actions to be directly taken in insufficiently covered areas.

The seasonal radon survey and assessment of annual effective dose in some dwellings near the registered uranium mining lot areas in Korea

Seasonal indoor radon concentration was surveyed, and the annual effective dose was estimated for the residents in some dwellings near the registered uranium mining lot areas, considered as one of the potential radon-prone area. The range of indoor radon concentration in each dwelling was from 17.7 to 1,610 Bq⋅m −3 . The range of annual effective dose due to inhaled radon of the resident in each dwelling was from 0.93 to 20.5 mSv.

Minimum parking requirements and housing affordability in New York City

Many cities throughout the United States require developers of new residential construction to provide a minimum number of accompanying off-street parking spaces. However, critics argue that these requirements increase housing costs by bundling an oversupply of parking with new housing and by reducing the number of units developers could otherwise fit on a given lot. Furthermore, the requirements reduce the subsequent direct costs of car ownership by forcing up-front, or subsidizing, consumption of parking spaces, which leads to increases in auto-use and its related externalities. Such critics advocate eliminating or at least reducing the requirements to be more responsive to locational context, particularly proximity to transit. In this article, we explore the theoretical objections to minimum parking requirements and the limited empirical literature. We then use lot-level data and GIS to analyze parking requirements in New York City to determine to what extent they are already effectively sensitive to transit proximity. Finally, we examine developer response to parking requirements by comparing the number of spaces that are actually built to the number required by applicable zoning law. Our results indicate that the per-unit parking requirement in New York is, on average, lower in areas near rail transit stations, but the required number of spaces per square foot of lot area is higher, on average, in transit accessible areas. We also find that by and large, developers tend to build only the bare minimum of parking required by zoning, suggesting that the minimum parking requirements are binding for developers, as argued by critics, and that developers do not simply build parking out of perceived marked need. Our results raise the possibility that even in cities with complex and tailored parking requirements, there is room to tie the requirements more closely to contextual factors. Further, such changes are likely to result in fewer parking spaces from residential developers.

Goodbye to the Backyard?—The Minimisation of Private Open Space in the Australian Outer-Suburban Estate

Although a substantial backyard might be considered an iconic Australian feature, by the late 1990s, almost all new suburban houses had minimal provision of soft-landscaped private open space. This article presents results of research that has investigated important aspects of this phenomenon. It has measured the changes on a sample basis and has attempted to relate the changes to their planning policy context. The environmental significance has been assessed in relation to the literature. Quantitative analyses of examples from older and newer suburban form are presented. They indicate that this is happening irrespective of size of lot and appears connected with a trend to larger dwellings in relation to the lot area. It represents a loss that has serious ecological implications for the community as a whole, including a significant reduction in biodiversity, sustainable drainage and a beneficent microclimate, in addition to lower standards of domestic amenity. It does not appear that the reduction in size is being required by planning policies. Planning codes, while not actually encouraging the trend, do nothing to prevent it. The phenomenon is to be found even under progressive planning regimes and in nearly all master-planned estates.

A Continuing Role for Minimum Parking Requirements in a Dense Growing City? Evidence from New York City

Many cities throughout the United States require developers of new residential construction to also provide off-street parking, presumably to ensure that new projects absorb any additional parking demand. However, these requirements may potentially increase housing costs directly and indirectly by bundling parking with new housing and reducing the number of units developers can fit on a lot. They may also reduce the subsequent costs of car ownership, increasing car-use and associated externalities. Our research explores the role of minimum parking requirements in New York City, given its shortage of affordable housing and the emphasis policymakers have placed on sustainable growth. After a review of their history, we use lot-level data to calculate and map two measures of parking requirements to better understand their intersection with transit accessibility and development opportunity. Our results indicate that the per-unit parking requirement is generally lower in areas near rail transit, consistent with the City’s development goals. However, we also find that the required number of spaces per square foot of lot area is generally higher in transit accessible areas. This raises the possibility that parking requirements are working counter to the city’s stated development goals in transit-accessible neighborhoods.

Drift of large tabular icebergs in response to atmospheric surface pressure gradients, an observational study

AbstractWhile ocean current and winds certainly play a major role in guiding the trajectories of free-floating icebergs, the direct effect of atmospheric surface pressure gradients can also have an important influence on the trajectories of large icebergs whose horizontal dimensions are sufficiently great to span synoptic systems. This effect is examined as a way of understanding why icebergs B15A, B15J, B15K, and C16 became “trapped” in a limited region immediately north of Ross Island for a period of several years, without being grounded. This limited region is otherwise flushed annually by summer surface winds and currents; thus the delay of the northward drift of the large icebergs (particularly B15A and B15J) defied expectation. The best explanation for this unexpected iceberg behaviour is that the large volcanic massifs on Ross Island create a quasi-permanent surface pressure anomaly patterned as a dipole, with high pressure in the area upwind of the island (an area appropriately called Windless Bight), and low pressure in the downwind area of the iceberg parking lot. The surface pressure regime experienced by two icebergs B15A and B15K is estimated using Automatic Weather Station observations and Global Positioning System receivers deployed on their surfaces to explain why they remained trapped. Breakdown of the atmospheric pressure gradients allowed them to eventually escape from the region to the north-west.

Detection of ventilation paths using high-resolution roughness parameter mapping in a large urban area

In this study, an urban roughness mapping method is presented on the example of a large study area in Szeged, Hungary, as an example. With this roughness mapping procedure, the potential ventilation paths of the city can be located. Our calculations of the roughness parameters are based on a 3D building database; however, this new approach using the lot area polygons provides more detailed results than other recent studies. The detected ventilation paths could play a significant role in the development of the urban heat island circulation and result in the reduction of air pollution in the central parts of the city. Based on our results, we can mark out the areas where the city government should keep the advantages of the ventilation paths considering the human comfort aspects of the urban climate, thus providing important input data for urban planning procedures.

芝生化駐車場における自動車エンジン熱の影響に関する基礎的研究

Parking lot greening attracts attention as a new greenery technology of urban space, and the actual demonstrative experiments have been carried out in various places. Although turf grass is mainly used for greenig of the surface of parking lots, the damage of dying back considered to originate in the heat from vehicles was observed frequently. In this research, the survey of damage was performed first. Subsequently, using various automobile vehicles. At three grass-covered parking lot area, it turned out that the damage occurred at approximately 100% frequency. From the result of the experiment using car of various model, it was found that one cause of the damage to the grass was a hot wind injected downward from the engine portion of a car. The strength of the hot wind was different among car models. In four car models of seven car models used for the experiment, the surface temperature of the lawn rose to more than 55 degrees Celsius, and the damage may have come out. At the experiment using a type of a car with the strongest hot wind from engine, the lawn surface reached 70 degrees Celsius at the maximum. The damage occurred in the examination of 10 minutes. However, it was judged that the heat rise under the ground was small and there was no serious influence in the root of the lawn.