Loss Of Ecosystem Services Research Articles

Simulating the impact of land use change on ecosystem services in agricultural production areas with multiple scenarios considering ecosystem service richness

Agricultural land is a complex seminatural and semiartificial ecosystem that is affected by both human activities and natural factors. Clarifying land use and ecological health conflicts in agricultural areas is important for maintaining ecosystem services. Thus, taking the Henan section of the Yellow River (HSYR) as the study area, this study constructed an ecosystem service index (ESI) assessment model to explore the impact of land use change on ecosystem services from 1980 to 2020. Then, the future land use simulation (FLUS) model was used to simulate the effects of different development patterns on ecosystem services heterogeneity in 2035. The results showed that, from 1980 to 2000, the ESI increased from 0.520 to 0.649, but then decreased to 0.509 by the end of 2020 in the HSYR. In any simulation scenarios, urban land expansion continued to encroach on cropland, resulting in the loss of ecosystem services. Especially in the natural development scenario (ND), the ESI may be reduced by up to 2.55%. The results also emphasized that ecosystem services can be protected in the cropland protection scenario (EC). The results of this study enrich the understanding of the impact of human activities on ecological services in agricultural areas and provide new insights into grasping regional food security and ecological stability.

Improved Ecosystem Services and Environmental Gentrification after Rehabilitating Brazilian Urban Streams

The high levels of environmental pollution observed in urban freshwater ecosystems result in losses of ecosystem goods and services, reducing the well-being of human populations in densely populated tropical cities. The Belo Horizonte Metropolitan Region (BHMR) resembles other megacities in the Global South, with inadequate collection and treatment of domestic sewage being an important source of environmental degradation. However, urban stream rehabilitation can improve ecosystem quality and the physical and mental well-being of local citizens. Therefore, the objective of this study was to assess whether the rehabilitation of three BHMR streams and the increased provision of ecosystem goods and services for local residents were associated with environmental gentrification and public health issues. To achieve this objective, we asked three questions. (i) Was there socioeconomic improvement in the households located near the rehabilitated streams? (ii) Did property values appreciate near the rehabilitated streams? (iii) Was the relative incidence of diseases decreased in the residents living near the rehabilitated streams? We tested three hypotheses. (H1) The socioeconomic profile of the households in the areas neighboring the rehabilitated streams improved. (H2) The property values of residences in the areas neighboring the rehabilitated streams increased. (H3) The incidence of waterborne and other types of diseases in the areas neighboring the rehabilitated streams decreased. To answer the first question and hypothesis, we compared 2000 to 2010 census tracts in the areas neighboring the rehabilitated streams with others in the municipality of Belo Horizonte (BH). We observed non-significant socioeconomic and demographic differences. To answer the second question and hypothesis, we used real estate transactions between 2009 and 2018 using hedonic models. After controlling for multiple interacting variables, we observed real estate appreciation after stream rehabilitation. To answer the third question and hypothesis, we analyzed the association between the prevalence of waterborne diseases, vector-borne diseases, and other diseases in the residents living near the rehabilitated streams. To do so, we analyzed hospitalization data from 2005 to 2016 for residents neighboring the streams versus BH. We observed a significant increase in the prevalence of waterborne and vector-transmitted diseases until two years after the stream rehabilitation, followed by a decrease until 2010. Trends for other types of diseases differed from these and mostly followed the general tendencies of BH, indicating different temporal variations. Our results highlight that ecosystem goods and services fostered by urban stream rehabilitation have potential contributions to the well-being of urban populations. The economic analyses applied in the paper have clear policy implications in support of urban stream rehabilitation. Although South American countries lack mandatory rehabilitation investments, Belo Horizonte’s example can inspire other interventions in tropical megacities.

Microplastics alter soil enzyme activities and microbial community structure without negatively affecting plant growth in an agroecosystem

Despite the enormous benefits that plastics bring to our daily lives, plastics accumulate in the environment, especially microplastics (MPs; defined as particles <5 mm), which can cause many problems and potential loss of ecosystem services. Current research has shown the significant impact of MPs on aquatic systems, but little is known about their effect on terrestrial systems, especially within agroecosystems. Here, we investigated the effect of MPs types (PS, PE and PVC) on plant growth, soil enzyme activities, and microbial communities. MPs had a positive, type-dependent influence on plant growth affecting both above and below-ground productivity. MPs, especially PVC increased dry weights (+69.51 and + 164.62), and root length (+54.81) relative to control. Although the activity of β-glucosidase, alkaline phosphatase, cellobiohydrolase, leucine-aminopeptidase, and dehydrogenase was suppressed by MPs except urease activity which was enhanced by MPs addition. The type of MPs in soil significantly altered C flow through the soil-plant system, indicating that MPs adversely affect many C-dependent soil functions. However, MPs (especially PVC) enhanced microbial biomass carbon (+14.88%) and altered the structure and metabolic status of the microbial community. MPs addition (especially PVC) greatly enhanced soil microbial structure (+29.59%; indicated by PLFAs) compared to control. Here we provide evidence that MPs can have significant effects on key pools and fluxes within the terrestrial C cycle, with responses being MPs type-dependent. Therefore, we concluded that MPs in soil are not benign and every step should be taken to restrict their access to the soil-plant system and their potential to transfer into the food chain.

A socio-ecological and geospatial approach for evaluation of ecosystem services to communities of the Eastern Himalayan Region, India.

Mountains are one of the most ecological functional areas and provide wide range of ecosystem services (ESs) to the adjoining people. However, the mountainous ESs are highly vulnerable due to land use and land cover (LULC) change and climate change. Therefore, evaluations of the nexus between ESs and mountainous communities are essentially required for policy purpose. This study aims to assess ESs by analyzing LULC focusing in three ecosystems (forest, agriculture, and home garden) from urban and peri-urban areas for last 3 decades, applying participatory and geospatial approaches for a mountainous city in Eastern Himalayan Region (EHR), India. The findings showed that a substantial loss in ESs has occurred during the period. Moreover, there were substantial variations of ecosystem importance and dependency between urban and peri-urban areas with highest importance of provisioning ESs in peri-urban areas and cultural ESs in urban areas. Moreover, among the three ecosystems, forests were strongly supporting the peri-urban areas communities. The result demonstrated that the communities are highly dependent on various ESs for their livelihoods, but the changes of LULC had substantial impact on the loss of ESs. Therefore, implementation of effective land uses planning strategies and measures for ecological security and livelihood sustainability is to be managed with people participation in mountainous areas.

Evaluation of the Linkages between Ecosystem Services and Land Use/Land Cover Changes in Matenchose Watershed, Rift Valley Basin, Ethiopia

The global ecosystem services that are essential to sustaining life on the planet have been disrupted by different anthropogenic activities. This study’s objective is to examine how ecosystem services vary with changes in land use and land cover (LULC) across 29 years at the Matenchose watershed. Landsat images for 1991 (TM), 2003 (ETM+), and 2020 (OLI-8) were used for the categorization of LULC. To evaluate the changes in ecosystems service valuations (ESVs) as a result of LULC changes in combination with ArcGIS, the value transfer valuation approach was utilized. Farmlands, towns, and bare land exhibited growing trends among the five major LULC classes, but forest and grassland showed declining trends. From 1991 to 2020, ESVs decreased by a total of US $157.24 million due to the LULC modifications. In terms of ESV functions, provisional services (US $89.23 million) and cultural services (US $69.36 million) made up the majority of the loss of ESV. Overall, the reduction of ESV showed the environment is degrading because of existing LULC changes, this calls for immediate sustainable land management intervention by responsible actors. To attain sustainable development goals regarding food and life on the land, it is imperative to reverse the loss of ecosystem services.

Bison influences on composition and diversity of riparian plant communities in Yellowstone National Park

AbstractRiparian zones are among the most biologically diverse ecosystems in the Intermountain West, USA, and provide valuable ecosystem services, including high rates of biotic productivity, nutrient processing, and carbon storage. Thus, their sustainability is a high priority for land managers. Large ungulates affect composition and structure of riparian/stream ecosystems through herbivory and physical effects, via trailing and trampling. Bison (Bison bison) in Yellowstone National Park (YNP) have been characterized as “ecosystem engineers” because of their demonstrated effects on phenology, aboveground productivity of grasses, and woody vegetation structure. Bison have greatly increased in numbers during the last two decades and spend large periods of time in the broad open floodplains of the Northern Range of the Park, where they are hypothesized to have multiple effects on plant species composition and diversity. We sampled indicators of bison use as well as riparian vegetation composition, diversity, and structure along eight headwater streams within YNP's Northern Range. Total fecal density ranged from 333 to 1833 fecal chips and/or piles/ha, stubble heights ranged from 7 to 49 cm, and streambank disturbance ranged from 9% to 62%. High levels of bison use were positively correlated with exotic species dominance and negatively correlated with species richness, native species diversity, willow (Salix spp.) cover, and wetland species dominance. At three sites, the intensity of bison use exceeded recommended utilization thresholds to avoid degradation of streams and riparian zones on public lands. The influences of large herbivores, principally bison, on vegetation composition and structure suggest the cumulative effects of the current densities on the Northern Range are contributing to biotic impoverishment, representing the loss of ecosystem services that are provided by native riparian plant communities. In addition, contemporary levels of bison use may be exacerbating climate change effects as observed through ungulate‐related shifts in composition toward plant assemblages adapted to warmer and drier conditions. However, the resilience of native riparian vegetation suggests that sites currently heavily utilized by bison would have the potential for recovery with a reduction in pressure by this herbivore.

Soil structural vulnerability: Critical review and conceptual development

Soil structure affects a range of soil functions (e.g., water, air, heat, and nutrient transport) and ecosystem services (e.g., production, climate regulation). Agricultural intensification is a dominant factor in global soil structural degradation. Understanding the vulnerability of soils to structural degradation may be important to land use planning and identifying management practices that mitigate the risk of degradation. We review the current methods for assessing soil structural vulnerability and the influencing factors, focussing on soil compaction and aggregate breakdown as two key measures of structural degradation. Methods for assessing risk of soil structural degradation and management practices affecting the risk are also discussed. Critical research gaps are identified, including the lack of studies that demonstrate the link between soil structural vulnerability and loss of soil functions or ecosystem services. Our review of the literature identified that the terms susceptibility, vulnerability, and risk are often used interchangeably. We propose definitions that can be used to distinguish these terms. Soil properties (relatively static), soil wetness, and land use stress (e.g., climate and management practices) are progressively included in the assessments of soil structural susceptibility, vulnerability, and risk. Existing indicators for assessing soil structural vulnerability may not be suitable to predict potential effects on ecosystem services. We highlight that soil structural vulnerability assessments should focus on key soil structural indicators (e.g., pore network-based hydraulic properties) affecting soil functions and ecosystem services. Both the state (i.e., condition) of soil structure and its vulnerability should be included for assessing soil structural degradation. To overcome the limitations of previous assessments, we developed a conceptual model linking soil structural vulnerability assessment to loss of soil functions and ecosystem services. Our review provides insights on assessment metrics and frameworks to develop management practices that improve soil structure and delivery of ecosystem services.

Uptake and use of biodiversity offsetting in urban planning – The case of Sweden

Globally, biodiversity offsetting is used to balance negative impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem services caused by exploitation. In Sweden, there is an increasing interest in biodiversity offsetting in urban planning. However, there is limited understanding about the use of the concept in a municipal context. This study aims to examine and critically reflect on the uptake and use of biodiversity offsetting at a strategic level in urban planning in Sweden. We study urban planning documents, and included Sweden’s 290 municipalities in the study. The result shows that more than 50% of Sweden’s municipalities mention biodiversity offsetting in their planning documents, targeting both regulatory offsetting of protected areas and voluntary offsetting of urban green space. The uptake is highest in urban areas experiencing high exploitation pressure, and many municipalities include both biodiversity and ecosystem services in their strategic work with offsetting. Most municipalities do not relate to the mitigation hierarchy (avoid, minimize, restore, offset), nor the goal of no net loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services. There is an ambiguity in the translation between losses and offsets, i.e. what type of offsetting (like-for-(un)like), what replacement ratios, and where to place the offsets. Few municipalities have developed processes, guidelines, strategic plans, etc., to integrate offsetting into the planning process. We conclude that the uptake of biodiversity offsetting is substantial, but with a fragmented, and often immature use in relation to ecological knowledge, and the planning process. We argue that, to develop biodiversity offsetting into an approach that delivers sound outcomes for nature and people in urban planning, municipalities must have a capacity in terms of organisational structures and resources.

Integrating ecosystem services conservation into the optimization of urban planning policies in eco-fragile areas: A scenario-based case study

Alleviating the contradiction between land use change and natural ecosystem protection is an urgent problem that needs to be solved in the context of rapid urbanization. Urban expansion from 2015 to 2035 is simulated under three scenarios in this study using the Future Urban-Regional Environment Simulation (FUTURES) model, with Hohhot, China as the research area. Then, the value of crucial ecosystem services and the trade-offs or synergies between them are calculated for past and future periods. We find that urban expansion is dominated by the occupation of cropland and grassland, leading to the losses of ecosystem services. Especially under the economic priority (EP) scenario, food production may be reduced by up to 2.98 % and soil conservation may be reduced by up to 1.04 %. The directionality of the relationships between ecosystem services will not be reversed under any scenario. Our results also emphasize that although ecosystem services have been effectively protected under the ecological conservation (EC) scenario, it may increase the trade-off intensity among them. By considering the assessment of ecosystem services and changes in their interactions when choosing the urban expansion pattern, managers can optimize planning policies to ensure sustainable urban and community management.

Human impact changes hydrological connectivity in a Patagonian fluvial basin

Study regionThe Cronómetro Lake basin situated east of the Andes in Argentina's Patagonian Andean pre-range environment. Study focusWe analyzed the interannual fluctuation in the surface area of Cronómetro Lake (January 2000 to January 2021). We also studied the periods of humidity and drought and the anthropogenic activities in the lake basin to understand their impact on water availability within the basin. New hydrological insights for the regionThe area of Cronómetro Lake decreased by 34% in the last ten years. The lake's area reduction started in 2012, which coincides with the construction of fourteen channels perpendicular to one of its main tributaries (the SN1 Stream). The channelization of the SN1 Stream in its upper basin prevents its water from reaching the Cronómetro Lake. From 2012–2021, we have not observed a decrease in local rainfall or an increase in periods of drought. Therefore, we suggest the channelization of the SN1 Stream is the cause of the lake shrinkage. The reduction of the lake's surface generated the disconnection of the lake from its outflow, which dried. Currently, the Cronómetro Lake basin has become endorheic. The reduction in water availability in the Cronómetro Lake basin causes loss of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystem services, with negative implications for local economic activities.

PROFIL VEGETASI LANSEKAP ADAPTIF PADA PASCATAMBANG BATUBARA DI INDONESIA

Post-mining land is generally damaged by physical properties related to soil texture and porosity, chemistry associated with low pH levels and nutrient deficits, as well as heavy metal content, low biodiversity, and loss of ecosystem services. It is a challenge for the reclamation process, so various efforts are being made to increase its effectiveness. In general, the effectiveness is only partially assessed because it looks for convenience but does not consider the follow-up impact. This study aims to inventory the types of plants that are commonly found in post-coal mining areas. The study was conducted using a qualitative approach through a literature review and desk study. At least 21 species of trees are the most widely planted for the reclamation process. Among these 21 species, only 14.3 percent are native species, while the other 85.7 percent are alien plants that have the potential to become invasive. Though invasive plants cause environmental damage and disrupt the stability of the bio-ecohydrological system. Therefore, a new approach to mine reclamation is needed for the preservation of the environment and the ongoing environmental services provided to humans and other living things

THE CONCEPT OF ECOSYSTEM SERVICES

The world’s natural capital is shrinking faster and faster. Loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services is caused by changes in habitats, mainly due to land use change, the spread of invasive species, environmental pollution and climate change. Current unsustainable consumption and production patterns also contribute to the depletion of natural resources and threaten the services provided by ecosystems. At the moment, relatively little is said about ecosystem services, attempts have been made to gather the experience of different countries, but in reality only a few municipalities pay much attention to this issue.

Limited evidence for quantitative contribution of rare and endangered species to agricultural production

Biodiversity underpins ecosystem functions that provide benefits to people, yet the role of rare and endangered species (RES) in supporting ecosystem services is unclear. Thus, it remains controversial whether arguments for conservation that focus on ecosystem services align with the protection of RES. We designed a systematic review protocol to critically assess the evidence for quantitative contributions of RES to terrestrial agricultural production, which is a key driver of biodiversity change and, simultaneously, could suffer from the loss of ecosystem services provided by biodiversity. Our review search criteria required that studies: 1) provide information on RES, 2) focus on an ecosystem service relevant for agriculture; and 3) include a quantitative measure of agricultural production. Surprisingly, we found only four studies that fulfilled these criteria, which was insufficient to perform a meta-analysis of results. Thus, we highlight here the gap in quantitative research, discuss the implications of this knowledge gap for the conservation of RES, and suggest future research directions. We conclude that further quantitative research is urgently needed to better inform conservation and agricultural policies, including research that focuses specifically on RES, incorporates more ecosystem services, and covers a wider range of climatic and socioeconomic contexts.

Possibilities and challenges for landscape observatories

The twentieth century saw rapid environmental degradation due to changes that contributed to increased net GHG emissions, loss of natural ecosystems, and declining biodiversity. Deterioration of unprotected landscapes during swift industrialization, urbanization, increasing monocultures in agriculture, expansion of commercial production significantly contributed to these negative consequences. However, a cultural shift occurred during the last two decades in favour of landscape conservation. In response to widespread landscape degradation and loss of ecosystem services, the Council of Europe saw the need to protect, manage, and develop the landscapes, and thus signed the European Landscape Convention (ELC) in 2000. This was the world's first international agreement that described all aspects of landscape management in detail. The European Landscape Convention fully meets the challenges through its goal of correcting a lack of understanding of landscapes as a unique system embracing natural, economic, and social features throughout Europe. It goes beyond simply protecting landscapes and addresses landscape management and development, as well as raising public and government awareness of the importance of paying attention to all types of landscapes, whether exceptional or spoiled. Landscape observatories, multifunctional platforms and knowledge centres for researchers, technicians, administrators, and citizens, are one of the Council of Europe's instruments for implementing the European Landscape Convention (ELC). They can be established on a variety of scales and can serve as a vital link between administrations, civil society, researchers, and the economic sector. This article discusses the emergence of landscape observatories and the role they can play as decision support instruments in promoting sustainable landscape development through a regenerative approach. Additionally, the paper discusses the implementation of ELC in Västra Götaland in Sweden through the establishment of Landscape Observatory Västra Götaland, and its impacts and challenges associated with landscape development. Furthermore, we propose a comprehensive and holistic, to any landscape type adaptable landscape observatory concept, based on multifunctionality of these institutions, emphasizing their decision support roles, social and economic importance.

Pressões humanas degradam a condição ecológica do Alto Ribeirão Graipu

ABSTRACT Environmental degradation from human pressures includes the conversion of native vegetation cover into pastures and cropland, as well as riparian deforestation, leading to river siltation, biotic homogenization, and loss of ecosystem services. The objective of our study was to evaluate water quality and benthic macroinvertebrate assemblage structure in response to changes in land use at local and buffer spatial extents. We assumed that human disturbances negatively affect water quality and macroinvertebrate assemblage condition. Greater human influence was observed at the local extent (Local Disturbance Index – LDI) than at the buffer (Buffer Disturbance Index – BDI) extent. Likewise, biological metric responses were stronger relative to the LDI than to the BDI or to the Integrated Disturbance Index (IDI). These results support establishing a biomonitoring program for assessing water body quality in the Doce River basin to facilitate conserving aquatic biodiversity and ecosystem services in the upper Graipu River.

Climatic Impact of Cross-Timber Production and Ecosystem Services on Profit Efficiency

The Cross-Timbers is a forested region that stretches from southern Kansas to central Oklahoma and into Texas. As an essential transitional ecotone between the eastern forest and Great Plains grassland biomes, this region is crucial for maintaining biological diversity. Much of this land is not actively managed for the critical ecosystem services that benefit people living in the region. The Cross-Timbers face threats from natural and anthropogenic factors, including climate variability. The lack of proper forest management (prescribed fires and thinning’s) has resulted in a reduction of wildlife habitats and water availability, and an increased risk of wildfires surrounding human development. These losses in ecosystem services are concerning given the high population pressure, with over 17 million people projected to be directly dependent on these services by 2040. Therefore, analyzing the economic capacity of the region to efficiently use and provide natural resources is critical for improving economic wealth. Efficient forest management practices can result in increased forest productivity and profitability, leading to the development of markets for other non-timber benefits, such as carbon sequestration, hunting, biodiversity, water production, and recreational activities. These practices can position the Cross-Timbers forests as a feasible commodity for emerging natural resource markets. To assess the economic efficiency of the region's forests, we applied stochastic frontier analysis, which measures profit efficiency. Using data from the USDA Forest Inventory and Analysis program at the forest plot level between 2004-2019, we examined the impacts of forest management practices, natural disturbances, and climatic variables on profit efficiency. Our results indicate that the Cross-Timbers forests are economically inefficient in the provision of ecosystem services. Damage caused by abiotic factors reduces profit efficiency by 3.4%, while damage caused by biological factors increases profit efficiency by 23%. The productivity of the site also increases profit efficiency by 17%. Overall, forests in this region generate negative profits when providing ecosystem services. Kansas forests generate higher and more stable profits over time than those in Oklahoma and Texas, and managing softwoods shows to be a more economically attractive alternative than managing oaks, which show the largest variability in profits across the three states.

American bullfrog (Lithobates catesbeianus) distribution, impact on native amphibians and management priorities in San Carlos, Uruguay

Biological invasions are a major cause of biodiversity and ecosystem services loss. However, information on distribution and impacts is limited for many alien species, restricting the development of local management measures. The aim of this study is: to identify the current situation of the American bullfrog (Lithobates catesbeianus) invasion focus in San Carlos (Maldonado, Uruguay); to evaluate its impacts on native anurans; and to provide management tools. Between 2017 and 2019, 75 permanent ponds were sampled, finding an expanding bullfrog population (occupying 32 ponds, in 16.5 km2). Results show that native anuran richness was lower in the invaded ponds. Observed impacts were greater for the aquatic frogPseudis minuta, probably due to greater encounter rates with the invader. The abundance of tadpoles was also lower in the invaded ponds. The local pond network was explored using graph theory, evaluating its topological role and centrality. In this network, a list of priority ponds was generated to prevent local bullfrog expansion. Given the relatively small size of this population, eradication seems feasible. Focusing on the key nodes could prevent further expansion, by using spatial prioritization to organize the recommended management of the pond network.

A social–ecological geography of southern Canadian lakes

Anthropogenic pressures, including urban and agricultural expansion, can negatively influence a lake's capacity to provide aquatic ecosystem services (ES). However, identifying lakes most at risk of losing their ES (i.e., higher vulnerability) requires integrating information on lake ecological state, global change threats, and ES use. Here, we provide a social–ecological framework that combines these features within a regional context by evaluating the ecological state of 659 lakes across Canada. Using the deviation of impacted lakes from reference ones, we identified much higher total nitrogen and chloride concentrations as the main indicators of an altered lake ecological state in all regions identified. Lake ecological state was mapped using an additive colour model along with regional scores of threat levels and recreational ES use. Urban and agriculturally developed areas were linked to higher lake vulnerability and ES loss. Lakes in Southern Ontario were most concerning, being highly altered, under threat, and heavily used. Lakes near coastal urban centers were altered and used, but less threatened, whereas those in the Prairies were altered and threatened, but less used. Our novel framework provides the first social–ecological geography of Canadian lakes, and is a promising tool to assess lake state and vulnerability at scales relevant for management.

Decision science as a framework for combining geomorphological and ecological modeling for the management of coastal systems

The loss of ecosystem services due to climate change and coastal development is projected to have significant impacts on local economies and conservation of natural resources. Consequently, there has been an increase in coastal management activities such as living shorelines, oyster reef restoration, marsh restoration, beach and dune nourishment, and revegetation projects. Coastal management decisions are complex and include challenging trade-offs. Decision science offers a useful framework to address such complex problems. Here, we provide a synthesis about how decision science can help to integrate research from multiple disciplines (physical and life sciences) with management of coastal and marine systems. Specifically, we discuss the importance of considering concepts and techniques from ecology, coastal geology, geomorphology, climate science, oceanography, and decision analysis when developing conservation plans for coastal restoration. We illustrate the process with several coastal restoration studies. Our capstone example is based on a recent barrier island restoration assessment project at Dauphin Island, Alabama, which included the development of geomorphological and ecological models. We show how decision science can be used as a framework to combine geomorphological and ecological modeling to help inform management decisions while considering uncertainty about system changes and risk tolerance. We also build on our examples through a review of recently developed techniques for spatial conservation planning for land acquisition decisions and the application of adaptive management for sequential decisions.

Are We Putting the Money in the Right Pocket? Ascertaining the Eventual Relationship between Silvoagricultural Subsidies, Ecosystem Threats, and Ecosystem Services in Chile

Due to the Aichi targets, the international community committed to the sustainable management of silvoagricultural activities and to the elimination or reform of detrimental subsidies relative to biodiversity conservation. In this context, countries should have implemented specific actions to address these commitments. In Chile, the Instruments of Productive Promotion to Finance Field Work (IPP-FFW) framework was used to fund activities related to silvoagricultural systems, including, irrigation, plantations with exotic species, and the recovery of soils. However, concerns have been raised that are associated with the need for evaluating their effectiveness, including whether impact assessments should be carried out systematically. Considering that these subsidized activities may negatively impact nature, whether IPP-FFWs had been allocated is analyzed regardless of the threat degree of terrestrial ecosystems at the commune level in Chile using the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) ecosystem risk assessment methodology; moreover, the eventual relationship between changes in land use and ecosystem service provisions in case study for the Biobio region in Chile is also examined, for which the monetary consequences of the loss of ecosystem services—via the analysis of benefit transfers—are calculated. Evidence reveals that higher amounts of IPP-FFWs are allocated in communes with higher levels of threats and that a decrease in ecosystem service provision is associated with IPP-FFW’s allocation.