Energy Loss Research Articles

Cathodoluminescence emission and electron energy loss absorption from a 2D transition metal dichalcogenide in van der Waals heterostructures

Nanoscale variations of optical properties in transition metal dichalcogenide (TMD) monolayers can be explored with cathodoluminescence (CL) and electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) using electron microscopes. To increase the CL emission intensity from TMD monolayers, the MoSe2 flakes are encapsulated in hexagonal boron nitride (hBN), creating van der Waals (VdW) heterostructures. Until now, the studies have been exclusively focused on scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM-CL) or scanning electron microscopy (SEM-CL), separately. Here, we present results, using both techniques on the same sample, thereby exploring a large acceleration voltage range. We correlate the CL measurements with STEM-EELS measurements acquired with different energy dispersions, to access both the low-loss region at ultra-high spectral resolution, and the core-loss region. This provides information about the weight of the various absorption phenomena including the direct TMD absorption, the hBN interband transitions, the hBN bulk plasmon, and the core losses of the atoms present in the heterostructure. The S(T)EM-CL measurements from the TMD monolayer only show emission from the A exciton. Combining the STEM-EELS and S(T)EM-CL measurements, we can reconstruct different decay pathways leading to the A exciton CL emission. The comparison with SEM-CL shows that this is also a good technique for TMD heterostructure characterization, where the reduced demands on sample preparation are appealing. To demonstrate the capabilities of SEM-CL imaging, we also measured on a SiO2/Si substrate, quintessential in the sample preparation of two-dimensional materials, which is electron-opaque and can only be measured in SEM-CL. The CL-emitting defects of SiO2 make this substrate challenging to use, but we demonstrate that this background can be suppressed by using lower electron energy.

Probing Defectivity Beneath the Hydrocarbon Blanket in 2D hBN Using TEM-EELS.

The controlled creation and manipulation of defects in 2D materials has become increasingly popular as a means to design and tune new material functionalities. However, defect characterization by direct atomic-scale imaging is often severely limited by surface contamination due to a blanket of hydrocarbons. Thus, analysis techniques that can characterize atomic-scale defects despite the contamination layer are advantageous. In this work, we take inspiration from X-ray absorption spectroscopy and use broad-beam electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) to characterize defect structures in 2D hexagonal boron nitride (hBN) based on averaged fine structure in the boron K-edge. Since EELS is performed in a transmission electron microscope (TEM), imaging can be performed in-situ to assess contamination levels and other factors such as tears in the fragile 2D sheets, which can affect the spectroscopic analysis. We demonstrate the TEM-EELS technique for 2D hBN samples irradiated with different ion types and doses, finding spectral signatures indicative of boron-oxygen bonding that can be used as a measure of sample defectiveness depending on the ion beam treatment. We propose that even in cases where surface contamination has been mitigated, the averaging-based TEM-EELS technique can be useful for efficient sample surveys to support atomically resolved EELS experiments.

Synergistic Active Heterostructure Design for Enhanced Two Electron Oxygen Reduction via Chemical and Electrochemical Reconstruction of Heterosulfides.

Transition metal sulfides, particularly heterostructures, represent a promising class of electrocatalysts for two electron oxygen reduction (2e- ORR), however, understanding the dynamic structural evolution of these catalysts during alkaline ORR remains relatively unexplored. Herein, NiS2/In2.77S4 heterostructure was synthesized as a precatalyst and through a series of comprehensive ex-situ and in-situ characterizations, including X-ray absorption spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, transient photo-induced voltage measurements, electron energy loss spectroscopy, and spherical aberration-corrected electron microscopy, it was revealed that nickel/indium (oxy)hydroxides (NiOOH/In(OH)3) could be evolved from the initial NiS2/In2.77S4 via both electrochemical and chemical-driven methods. The electrochemical-driven phase featured abundant bridging oxygen-deficient [NiO6]-[InO6] units at the interfaces of NiOOH/In(OH)3, facilitating a synergistic effect between active Ni and In sites, thus enabling an enhanced alkaline 2e- ORR capability than that of chemical-driven process. Remarkably, electrochemically induced NiOOH/In(OH)3 exhibited exceptional performance, achieving H2O2 selectivity of >90% across the wide potential window (up to 0.4 V) with a peak selectivity of >99%. Notably, within the flow cell, a current density exceeding 200 mA cm-2 was sustained for over 20 h, together with an impressive Faradaic efficiency of approximately 90% and a hydrogen peroxide production rate surpassing 4 mol g-1 h-1.

The role of specific energy consumption in a heat recovery system for cassava starch production using an integrated agro-industrial system

BackgroundReducing energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions is a crucial issue in the cassava starch processing industry. In this study, the integrated system combining livestock, cassava cultivation and cassava production in the same area leads to both a zero emission goal and economic efficiency, a typical example of an effective agro-industrial symbiosis. A heat exchange/recovery system was applied including the economizer, heat exchanger tank, biogas tank, and boiler. The economizer attached to the boiler’s chimney transfers heat from exhaust gases for pre-heating feed water entering the boiler. The biogas tank recovers energy from the wastewater of starch production and livestock, and the generated biogas was used as fuel for the boiler.ResultsThe energy and exergy efficiency, energy losses, and exergy destruction for the heat recovery system were analyzed. The specific energy consumption was used to evaluate the overall energy efficiency for a cassava starch factory with a capacity of 20 tons/day. The results show that there is a high potential to recycle waste into energy in the cassava starch industry. The total energy saving and reduced greenhouse gas emissions per year of the cassava starch factory were 0.054%/year and 123,564 kgCO2/per year, respectively.ConclusionsCassava starch factories can save energy and reduce emissions when applying a heat recovery system in the integrated agro-industrial system. Excess heat from the production was used for evaporating (removal of) NH3 in wastewater flow from the biogas tank, and for heating the biogas system to enhance the efficiency of methane production. A biochar filter was attached to the economizer for adsorption of released ammonium, and the biochar after adsorption was combined with sludge from the biogas tank to produce a solid biofertilizer.

Optimising the hygiene of a liquid feeding system to improve the quality of liquid feed for pigs

Poor feeding system hygiene may contribute to uncontrolled spontaneous fermentation in liquid pig feed and its associated undesirable effects. This study aimed to determine the effects of an intensive sanitisation programme in a grow-finisher liquid feeding system by monitoring microbiological and physico-chemical parameters of liquid feed and microbial colonisation of the feeding system surfaces. The sanitisation programme involved a combination of physical and chemical cleaning between batches of grow-finisher pigs, combined with nightly rinsing of the system with an organic acid blend. Improved hygiene of the internal surfaces of the mixing tank and feed pipeline, particularly until week 5 post-cleaning, was evidenced by reduced counts of lactic acid bacteria, total aerobes, Enterobacteriaceae, yeasts and moulds and decreased adenosine triphosphate concentrations. Enterobacteriaceae and moulds remained undetectable on pipeline surfaces for 10 weeks. Scanning electron microscopy of the feed pipelines confirmed these findings. Conversely, the impact on liquid feed microbiology was minimal and short-lived. However, acetic acid, ethanol and biogenic amine concentrations decreased in the feed post-cleaning and no gross energy losses were observed. Therefore, by controlling surface microbial communities on liquid feeding systems via implementation of the sanitisation programme developed in the current study, on-farm liquid feed quality should be improved.

Investigation of the tradeoffs between tracking performance and energetics in heterogeneous variable recruitment fluidic artificial muscle bundles.

In traditional hydraulic robotics, actuators must be sized for the highest possible load, resulting in significant energy losses when operating in lower force regimes. Variable recruitment fluidic artificial muscle (FAM) bundles offer a novel bio-inspired solution to this problem. Divided into individual MUs, each with its own control valve, a variable recruitment FAM bundle uses a switching control scheme to selectively bring MUs online according to load demand. To date, every dynamic variable recruitment study in the literature has considered homogeneous bundles containing MUs of equal size. However, natural mammalian muscle MUs are heterogeneous and primarily operate based on Henneman's size principle, which states that MUs are recruited from smallest to largest. Is it better for a FAM variable recruitment bundle to operate according to this principle, or are there other recruitment orders that result in better performance? What are the appropriate criteria for switching between recruitment states for these different recruitment orders? This chapter seeks to answer these questions by performing two case studies exploring different bundle MU size distributions, analyzing the tradeoffs between tracking performance and energetics, and determining how these tradeoffs are affected by different MU recruitment order and recruitment state transition thresholds. The only difference between the two test cases is the overall force capacity (i.e., total size) of the bundle. For each test case, a Pareto frontier for different MU size distributions, recruitment orders, and recruitment state transition thresholds is constructed. The results show that there is a complex relationship between overall bundle size, MU size distributions, recruitment orders, and recruitment state transition thresholds corresponding to the best tradeoffs change along the Pareto frontier. Overall, these two case studies validate the use of Henneman's Size Principle as a variable recruitment strategy, but also demonstrate that it should not be the only method considered.

Optimal scheduling and management of grid‐connected distributed resources using improved decomposition‐based many‐objective evolutionary algorithm

AbstractThis paper emphasizes the integration of wind and photovoltaic (PV) generation with battery energy storage systems (BESS) in distribution networks (DNs) to enhance grid sustainability, reliability, and flexibility. A novel multi‐objective optimization framework is introduced in this study to minimize energy supply costs, emissions, and energy losses while improving voltage deviation (VD) and voltage stability index (VSI). The proposed framework comprising normal boundary intersection (NBI) and decomposition‐based evolutionary algorithms (DBEA) determines the optimal siting and sizing of renewable‐based distributed resources, considering load demand variations and the intermittency of wind and solar outputs. The comparative analysis establishes that the proposed strategy performs better than many contemporary algorithms, specifically when all the objective functions are optimized simultaneously. The validation of the proposed framework was carried out on the standard IEEE‐33 bus test network, which demonstrates significant percentage savings in energy supply costs (49.6%), emission rate (62.2%), and energy loss (92.3%), along with enormous improvements in VSI (91.9%) and VD (99.8953%). The obtained results categorically underline the efficiency, reliability, and robustness of the proposed approach when employed on any complex distribution network comprising multiple renewable energy sources and battery storage systems.

Experimental investigation of dewatering silty tailings using electrokinetic method

Mining and using underground resources demand high water usage, producing significant waste with environmental risks. Methods like electrokinetics prove effective in accelerating dewatering and stabilizing structures. This research provides the results of experimental investigation on dewatering silty tailings obtained from Sungun Tailings Dam (East Azerbaijan, Iran) using the electrokinetic water recovery method. Previous studies primarily examined the electrokinetic process in steady-state flow and saturated soil, with limited exploration of unsaturated soil parameters. In this research, the electrokinetic process in steady-state flow was initially investigated, and the saturated electro-osmotic permeability was determined. Subsequently, experiments were conducted in non-steady-state flow and unsaturated conditions, measuring the influential parameters with soil moisture sensors and tensiometers. Results show that decreasing sample moisture through electro-osmotic flow increases negative pore water pressure. Tailings' electrical conductivity is more influenced by moisture content, with a steeper reduction slope concerning volumetric moisture reduction over time. pH assessments show soil acidity at anode side and alkalinity on the cathode side. Higher applied voltage increasing maximum power consumption. Importantly, the results caution against assuming that higher applied voltage improves the electro-osmotic process, as it may lead to issues such as deep sample cracking; void space creation, interrupted electrical flow, and energy loss.

Measurements of laser-plasma instabilities in double-cone ignition experiments relevant to the direct-drive conditions at Shenguang-II Upgrade laser facility

Experiments have been performed to investigate laser-plasma instabilities (LPIs) relevant to the direct-drive inertial confinement fusion (ICF) conditions at the Shenguang-II Upgrade (SG-II UP) laser facility during the double-cone ignition (DCI) experimental campaigns, with the overlapped laser intensity ranging from 6×1014Wcm−2 to 1.8×1015Wcm−2 . An overall LPI scenario has been built from the collection and investigation of angularly distributed scattered light. Across broad ranges of laser and plasma parameters, relevant to the direct-drive ICF conditions, the dominance of the stimulated Raman side scattering (SRSS) was confirmed, and its coexistence with the two-plasmon decay (TPD) was also observed. Significant SRSS scattered light was observed across an extremely wide range of emission angles, concentrated at large angles, and demonstrated to be robust throughout the parameter space. Time-resolved spectral measurements show distinctly different SRSS behaviors along different angles and a slightly higher threshold compared to the TPD. The overall SRSS energy loss was measured, indicating a scattered light energy fraction of up to 6%. These results are of crucial importance for the precise assessment of the LPIs in the DCI as well as other laser directly driven ICF schemes.

Effects of Different Salinity Stress on the Transcriptomic Responses of Freshwater Crayfish (Procambarus clarkii, Girard, 1852)

Salinization of freshwater ecosystems is a pressing global issue. Changes in salinity can exert severe pressure on aquatic animals and jeopardize their survival. Procambarus clarkii is a valuable freshwater aquaculture species that exhibits some degree of salinity tolerance, making it an excellent research model for freshwater aquaculture species facing salinity stress. In the present study, crayfish were exposed to acute low salt (6 ppt) and high salt (18 ppt) conditions. The organisms were continuously monitored at 6, 24, and 72 h using RNA-Seq to investigate the mechanisms of salt stress resistance. Transcriptome analysis revealed that the crayfish responded to salinity stress with numerous differentially expressed genes, and most of different expression genes was observed in high salinity group for 24h. GO and KEGG enrichment analyses indicated that metabolic pathways were the primary response pathways in crayfish under salinity stress. This suggests that crayfish may use metabolic pathways to compensate for energy loss caused by osmotic stress. Furthermore, gene expression analysis revealed the differential expression of immune and antioxidant-related pathway genes under salinity stress, implying that salinity stress induces immune disorders in crayfish. More genes related to cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis, such as the Foxo, Wnt, Hippo, and Notch signaling pathways, responded to high-salinity stress. This suggests that regulating the cellular replication cycle and accelerating apoptosis may be necessary for crayfish to cope with high-salinity stress. Additionally, we identified 36 solute carrier family (SLC) genes related to ion transport, depicting possible ion exchange mechanisms in crayfish under salinity stress. These findings aimed to establish a foundation for understanding crustacean responses to salinity stress and their osmoregulatory mechanisms.

Electrochemical Activation of LiGaO2: Implications for Ga-Doped Garnet Solid Electrolytes in Li-Metal Batteries.

Ga-doped Li7La3Zr2O12 garnet solid electrolytes exhibit the highest Li-ion conductivities among the oxide-type garnet-structured solid electrolytes, but instabilities toward Li metal hamper their practical application. The instabilities have been assigned to direct chemical reactions between LiGaO2 coexisting phases and Li metal by several groups previously. Yet, the understanding of the role of LiGaO2 in the electrochemical cell and its electrochemical properties is still lacking. Here, we are investigating the electrochemical properties of LiGaO2 through electrochemical tests in galvanostatic cells versus Li metal and complementary ex situ studies via confocal Raman microscopy, quantitative phase analysis based on powder X-ray diffraction, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and electron energy loss spectroscopy. The results demonstrate considerable and surprising electrochemical activity, with high reversibility. A three-stage reaction mechanism is derived, including reversible electrochemical reactions that lead to the formation of highly electronically conducting products. The results have considerable implications for the use of Ga-doped Li7La3Zr2O12 electrolytes in all-solid-state Li-metal battery applications and raise the need for advanced materials engineering to realize Ga-doped Li7La3Zr2O12for practical use.

Anchor chains—A simple low‐cost device to assist passage of small‐bodied mass fish

AbstractAttention has been placed on a variety of barriers that hinder fish passage in modern times. The most prevalent fish barriers were culverts which have negatively impacted waterway connectivity and fish habitats. For small‐bodied mass fish, high barrel velocities and turbulence have reduced fish swimming performance because of their weak swimming capabilities. In the present study, physical testing was conducted under controlled flow conditions to assess the extent and magnitude of turbulence characteristics, secondary flow and low‐velocity zones in a 0.5‐m‐wide box culvert barrel. Two cases were investigated; a reference case consisting of a smooth rectangular channel and a low‐cost design solution to improve upstream fish migration consisting of a single galvanized anchor chain fitted within a smooth rectangular channel. The single anchor chain was positioned towards one corner of the channel to induce asymmetric flow, reducing overall energy losses and enhancing the existing low‐velocity zone in the adjacent channel corner. The anchor chain induced a strong turbulent flow motion away from the anchor chain, characterized by higher Reynolds stress and turbulent kinetic energy, along with a distinct channel flow asymmetry. Conversely, the low‐velocity zone, between the anchor chain and the bottom channel corner, was significantly expanded with reduced longitudinal mean velocities and turbulent scales. Whilst the anchor chain link contributed to some complex localized wake flow, the anchor chain also influenced the distributions of normal turbulent stresses (v'z2 – v'y2), which in turn influenced the location of secondary flow cells. This secondary flow redirected low momentum fluid into the low‐velocity zones, setting the conditions for the favorable upstream passage of small‐bodied mass fish species.

Determination of Energy Losses of the Crank Press Mechanism

This paper focuses on determining the friction energy loss in the mechanism of a mechanical crank press. After defining the crank press mechanism and how it works, we describe the energy balance of a technological operation—forming. Four distinct methodologies for calculating friction loss in the mechanism are then presented, namely an empirical method, a spreadsheet calculation utilising force decomposition in a crank mechanism, an analytical calculation of the dynamic behaviour of a press, and a multibody simulation. Each additional approach expands the possibilities for approaching reality, but as the primary aim of the study is to compare the approaches, these possibilities are not exploited. Multibody simulation has proved itself to be accurate and suitable for simulating press mechanisms and investigating their dynamics. Multibody simulation is a much more powerful tool that can lead to a digital twin, which can help us to develop a less energy-demanding press. Confirmation of the multibody simulation results is the main outcome of the comparison and will be used in future work.

Effects of tributary inflows on unsteady flow hysteresis and hydrodynamics in the mainstream

ABSTRACT Flooding propagation is a crucial aspect of hydrological monitoring and forecasting. Previous studies have focused on hysteresis in the rating curve, caused by energy loss during flood propagation. However, the impact of tributary inflow on hysteresis downstream remains unclear, leading to inconsistent field observations on whether it strengthens or weakens hysteresis. In this study, we conducted flume experiments to identify the relationship between hysteresis in unsteady flow and the discharge magnitude of the tributary and the unsteady flow period in the mainstream. It was found that the discharge variations in the tributary had a larger influence on hysteresis compared to the periodical variations in the mainstream unsteady flow. Interestingly, the hysteresis of the unsteady flow had an initial strengthening followed by weakening as the tributary discharge increased. When the tributary inflow was low, the widening of the downstream cross-section sharpened the flood wave, increasing the hysteresis. However, as the tributary discharge increased to generate a backwater effect on the mainstream, the pressure gradient flattened flood waves, thereby weakening the hysteresis. This study improves our understanding of how tributary inflow affects flood propagation in the mainstream, offering new insights for flood prediction and control.

Cover Picture

4‐(2‐Hydroxyethyl)piperazin‐1‐ium iodide (PZOI) is a functional ammonium salt that can simultaneously reduce shallow/deep‐level defect densities by passivation effect and form 2D component, respectively. These advances reduce the energy loss of single‐junction devices and significantly enhance the efficiency and stability of perovskite/organic tandems. More details are discussed in the article by Li et al. on page 1819—1827.image

Air processed, high open‐circuit voltage indoor organic photovoltaic cells based on side chain modified N‐annulated perylene diimides

AbstractTo achieve high‐performance indoor organic photovoltaics (OPVs), it is important to match the photoactive layer optical absorption with the light‐source emission. This can be accomplished by developing organic photoactive materials that can efficiently absorb visible light and thus minimize energy losses. While indoor OPVs have achieved efficiencies above 33% under low light intensities, the power output is limited by low open circuit voltages (VOC), often well below 1 V. In this study, we present a series of visible‐light absorbing (energy gap >1.90 eV) non‐fullerene acceptors (NFAs) based on perylene diimide dimers, which have been systematically modified with side chains of varying polarity and steric bulk (trimethyl benzyl, ethyl adamantane, trialkoxyl phenyl, and oligo ethylene glycol). Our results show that the incorporation of sterically bulky side chains such as ethyl adamantane and trimethyl benzyl, blended with the common widegap polymer PTQ10, provides photoactive layers with absorption greater than 2.0 eV, and consequently, VOCs higher than 1.2 V are achieved under AM 1.5 G illumination. Importantly, we found that the NFA with ethyl adamantane based side chains (tPDI2N‐ethyl adamantane, compound 4) exhibited the best performance, with minimized energy loss. As a result, devices using PTQ10:tPDI2N‐ethyl adamantane photoactive layers demonstrated excellent indoor efficiencies of over 16% and 18 μW cm−2 power output under a 2700 K LED lamp at 300 lux, and showed better repeatability compared to other systems. The PTQ10:tPDI2N‐ethyl adamantane based devices maintained a high VOC (>1.0 V) across a wide range of indoor lighting conditions, including 2700 K and 6500 K LED lamps. Overall, this work provides a sidechain engineering method to create NFAs for efficient indoor OPV devices.

A near-resonant excitation strategy to achieve ultra-low threshold GaN polariton lasing.

A near-resonant excitation strategy is proposed and implemented in a 4-µm-thick GaN microcavity to realize an exciton-polariton condensate/lasing with low threshold. Strong exciton-photon coupling is demonstrated, and polariton lasing is realized with an ultra-low threshold excitation power density of about 13.3 W/cm2 at room temperature. Such an ultra-low threshold is ascribed to the implementation of the near-resonant optical excitation strategy, which enables acceleration of the exciton and polariton relaxation and suppression of the heat generation in the cavity, thereby reducing the energy loss and enhance the cavity excitation efficiency.

Chemical effect of alkaline-earth metals (Be, Mg, Ca) substitution of BFe2XH hydride perovskites for applications as hydrogen storage materials: A DFT perspective

This study investigated the effect of alkaline-earth metals (X = Be, Mg, Ca) substitution of BFe2XH perovskite materials and the potential applications for hydrogen storage utilizing density functional theory (DFT) approach at the GGA-PBE and the HSE06 methods. The mechanical properties of the studied systems demonstrate the mechanical stability of BFe2MgH, making it the most mechanically robust compound. While the Pugh ratio suggests that BFe2BeH was brittle, while BFe2CaH showed greater ductility, anisotropic factors confirm that all compounds are anisotropic, indicating directional dependence in their properties. The electronic band structure analysis using the HSE06 and the GGA-PBE suggests that the studied perovskites are metallic due to a calculated bandgap of zero. In terms of optical/optoelectronic properties, BFe2MgH exhibits the highest optical conductivity, absorption coefficient, and energy loss function, indicating its superior ability to absorb light and transfer electrons. For practical applications, the hydrogen storage capacity is assessed, with BFe2BeH showing the highest gravimetric and volumetric capacities. These promising results suggest the potential use of BFe2BeH as an efficient material for hydrogen storage.

Rational construction of noble-metal-free fuel cell-supercapacitor hybrid power source using polyaniline electrode as both anode and cathode

The integration of fuel cell device and supercapacitor device into a singular hybrid power source at the electrode level can make the best use of the advantages of each individual device and more importantly, eliminate the energy loss by virtue of the conversion of chemical energy to electric energy on electrocatalyst material and the storage of electric energy on energy storage material simultaneously. To avoid the use of noble metal electrocatalyst and exploit the dual electrocatalytic and capacitive function of polyaniline, a noble-metal-free fuel cell-supercapacitor hybrid power source employing polyaniline electrode as both anode and cathode is rationally constructed. Based on electrochemical in-situ Raman spectroscopy, this work proposes that the open circuit potential (OCP) of polyaniline electrode is a simple and quick indicator of the redox state of polyaniline. After carefully selecting the fuel and carbon-based support, it is found that the ascorbic acid fuel and the carbon fiber cloth supported polyaniline contributes to the lowest OCP threshold in the anode, and thus the fastest self-charge and largest stabilized open circuit voltage of hybrid power source. The hybrid power source can be self-charged to 0.32 V and yield a peak power density of 0.21 mW cm−2.

Wind Farms’ Location and Geographical Proximity as a Key Factor in Sustainable City Development: Evidence from Poland

In this study, the potential impact of wind farm locations on the sustainable development of cities in Poland was evaluated, considering the availability of wind-generated electricity. We analyzed 37 cities in Poland with populations over 100,000. Research indicates that wind farms located 30–80 km from large cities perform best in terms of generating capacity, while greater distances increase transmission costs and energy losses. In Poland, wind farms are primarily situated in the northwestern regions, posing challenges for energy transmission to the southern cities, which are the main centers of energy consumption. The findings show that wind farms with the highest generating capacity are generally about 50 km from major cities. Key factors influencing wind farm locations include technical criteria, economic feasibility, environmental impact, public opinion, and the availability of transmission networks. Sustainable development of wind farms requires strategic cooperation between urban and rural municipalities, joint spatial planning, coordinated land acquisition, and the exchange of know-how.