Loose Way Research Articles

Asia's Population Problems edited by S. Chandrasekar. London: George Allen & Unwin, Limited. Pp.311. 45 shillings (U.K.)

Editors of "readers" (collections of articles focussing on a particular topic) usually tread lightly on the hands of contributors once they have been selected, but S. Chandrasekar's imprint is well marked in this book which contains studies of Seven Asian countries, Australia, an overview of Asia as a whole and two papers on Australia's immigration policy. Chandrasekar's editorship is evident in two ways which make this a unique and valuable collection of articles. All too often, collections of articles are strung together in a loose way by an often unbounded general theme. The articles are, therefore, uneven, dealing solely with a particular scholar's particular academic interest. This is useful, of course, in some cases, but in a "reader", designed to deal with Asia's population problems, the purpose is better served by a well-structured presentation of discussions having a similar focus.

ECOTYPIC DIFFERENTIATION: OBSERVATIONS AND REFLECTIONS

The ecotype concept (Turesson, 1922) is a population concept, and by definition an ecotype is an intraspecific product of environmental selection arising as a result of genotypic response to a particular habitat. Accordingly, before a population qualifies for ecotype status, a relationship must be demonstrated between its heredity and prevailing factors of its habitat. Since primary object of early genecological studies was to demonstrate existence of ecotypic differences, it was only natural comparisons made then were usually between population samples collected from distinctly different habitats. The results of such experiments showed validity of ecotype concept, though as subsequent investigations bear witness they tended to exaggerate discreteness of ecotypic units. Bocher (1949), for instance, points out difficulties involved in fitting complicated data obtained from studies on Prunella vulgaris into discrete ecotypes. He appreciates convenience of being able to single out most representative character combination in a given locality and give it a name. But in event the reader must not be left in doubt name does not correspond to a well-defined unit. It is probable, he thinks, that many of plants which Turesson has cultivated will, on closer study, prove to behave like Plantago maritima or Prunella vulgaris, where variation recorded is largely clinal. Current genecological work, indeed, suggests emphasis is increasingly being transferred from attempts to delimit ecotypes to study of trends of ecotypic differentiation. This transfer of emphasis from conceptual ecotype unit to demonstrable reality of ecotypic differentiation in no way vitiates Turesson's concept. It has been custom, for obvious practical reasons, to apply term ecotype to a population if any part of its heredity is demonstrably related to a particular feature of its environment. However, if an ecotype were to be established on basis of a particular genotype-environmental relationship same population might on basis of other criteria again qualify for ecotype status with perhaps new boundaries. This is one of reasons which make it so difficult to present a *comprehensive picture of ecotypic differentiation in terms of territorially exclusive ecotypes. Moreover, because characteristics which are most ecotypically responsive are so often quantitative ones, demonstrable ecotypic differentiation related to a particular environmental gradient is comparatively seldom discontinuously partitioned into discrete ecotypes, but, instead, it is commonly found to be arranged more or less continuously. In other words, ecotypic differentiation is commonly ecoclinal. The alternative to recording a few of most discretely differentiated habitat populations as ecotypes is, therefore, to record whatever trends of ecotypic differentiation investigator is able to detect by techniques he employs. At present time, even real significance of Turesson's concept is in danger of being masked by loose way term ecotype is sometimes used. Carter (1951), for example, refers to small populations which show geographical phenotypic differences resulting as responses to direct action of environment, as ecotypes, and says (p. 141) They are most noticeable in plants, but may occur in animals ... Variation of this type is non-genetic. Commonly, however, term ecotype is

"Humorismo" and "Angustia" in Modern Spanish Literature

Although the term humorismo has enjoyed increasing popularity over the last seventy years, its significance, to judge by the loose way it has often been employed, is still far from being fully appreciated.

An Analysis of X-Ray Findings in 405 Cases of Benign Gastric and Pyloric Ulcer

The purpose of this study was primarily: (a) to determine the most frequent sites of benign gastric ulcers and (b) to discover the reasons for the differences in location as reported by the radiologist, surgeon, and pathologist. In the course of our investigation, however, we took advantage of a comprehensive follow-up of a large number of cases to evaluate the results obtained by medical and surgical treatment. We believe that this information is of enough interest and importance to warrant its inclusion in a radiological presentation. The material upon which the paper is based consists of 429 gastric and pyloric ulcers in 405 patients hospitalized during the past fifteen years. There are included in this number several chronic ulcers found incidentally at autopsy. Terminology A review of the literature reveals considerable confusion in anatomical terminology in reference to the stomach, particularly the distal portion, as shown in Figure 1. This confusion is shared by the anatomist, surgeon, pathologist, and roentgenologist. We feel that there is a definite need for standardization of nomenclature, and offer our suggestions in Figure 2. The term “antrum” we apply to that portion of the stomach between the incisura angularis and the pylorus. We have divided the antrum into two parts, calling the distal 2.5 cm. the prepyloric area. In our experience, the greatest confusion has arisen from the loose way in which the word “pylorus” is used. Actually, this term should be applied only to the aperture between the stomach and duodenum. Many, however, have referred to any portion of the stomach distal to the incisura angularis as the pylorus. For example, in locating an ulcer in the prepyloric area in one case, the surgeon reported as follows: “Inspection revealed an indurated area approximately 1.5 cm. in diameter on the anterosuperior surface of the pylorus just proximal to the ring.” In another case, the pathologist, in describing an ulcer at the pyloric ring, made the following statement: “The specimen consists of the pyloric portion of the stomach and part of the duodenum. Of the pylorus there is about 5 cm.; of the duodenum 3.5 cm. At the junction of the two, on the lesser curvature, there is a small deep ulcer 7 mm. in diameter.” Similar mistakes are frequently made by the radiologist. The term “parapyloric ulcer” is confusing and should not be used, since it may mean any one of three things: (a) an ulcer originating in the base of the duodenal bulb and extending to the pyloric and prepyloric regions; (b) an ulcer primary in the pylorus and extending to the stomach and duodenum; (c) ulceration in the prepyloric area which may involve both the pylorus and the base of the cap. For a similar reason the term “juxtapyloric ulcer” is often ambiguous.

MENINGO-ENCEPHALOMYELITIS NEONATORUM

A satisfactory classification of the large group of congenital and early infantile diseases of the brain, Brissaud'sencephalopathies infantiles, does not as yet exist, despite a vast accumulation of reports of cases and descriptions published during the past seventy years. A number of more or less well defined syndromes, such as amaurotic idiocy and Schilder's disease, have been delineated, it is true, but there remains a motley assortment of disturbances—traumatic, inflammatory and degenerative. These are generally designated as infantile or congenital in such a loose way that encephalitis has scarcely any clinical or anatomic significance in the realm of diseases of the new-born. All this bespeaks a lack of understanding of the etiology and pathogenesis, on which some light may be shed by the observations in the case to be reported. REPORT OF CASE History. —A girl, aged 7 weeks, was admitted to the Presbyterian Hospital, to the service

What is a Hybrid?

EVERY year, when discussing questions of genetics with my classes, I am compelled to explain that the text-book uses the word hybrid in a very loose way, including heterozygous individuals of all kinds. According to this common usage, the world is full of hybrids, and all human beings are hybrids. I suggest that it would be more convenient to restrict the name hybrid to crosses between species. Crosses between variations or mutants are mongrels, but it may be better to use a more technical or international word, and I suggest “heterogene”.

The "Social Forces" Error

At the World's Congress of Arts and Sciences which was held at St. Louis in I904, I ventured to enter a protest against the loose way in which the word is employed by sociologists, saying among other things that sociologists have no more occasion to refer to any than the biologists have to speak of a vital There is a concept of force in general, to which I raise no objection, and there is a concept of social forces in particular, which is the object of my criticism. The former is the general metaphysical concept of power. In this sense according to prevalent modern philosophy there is but One Force which underlies and continuously causes all things that do appear, and is operative in the swinging of the spheres, in the bubbling of gases, and in the chemistry of growth in every grass blade. According to the theory of evolution the operation of The Force appeared first in the simplest phenomena, not however absolutely without differences among themselves. These simple phenomena became the conditions of other phenomena which, being added to the first, made a more complex situation and afforded the conditions for still other manifestations, or as we say, other phenomena, every new kind of phenomena being added to those which had preceded to form the conditions of still higher manifestations of the One Power. Scientific explanation is the description of the situation out of which a new kind of phenomena emerges a statement of those conditions which are the necessary logical antecedents of the phenomena explained. Now as often as we come across a kind of phenomena the conditioning of which we do not understand, we are tempted to say it is caused by a force. It is indeed caused by The Force

XXXI. An account of a treatise in Latin, presented to the Royal Society, intituled, de admirando frigore artificiali, quo mercurius est congelatus, dissertatio, &c. a J. A. Braunio, Academiæ Scientiarum Membro, &c

Gentlemen, Very early last year, we were informed, that at Petersburg, by the means artificial cold, the mercury in thermometers had been condensed to so great a degree, as to become perfectly fixed and solid: but as this information was received only in a loose way, from the public gazettes, the opinions of philosophers here were suspended, in relation to their giving credit to this very extraordinary phænomenon, until the truth of it could be sufficiently authenticated.