Loop-free Routing Research Articles

Connect attack in IoT-WSN detect through cyclic analysis based on forward and backward elimination.

IoT-wireless sensor networks (WSN) have extensive applications in diverse fields such as battlegrounds, commercial sectors, habitat monitoring, buildings, smart homes, and traffic surveillance. WSNs are susceptible to various types of attacks, such as malicious attacks, false data injection attacks, traffic attacks, and HTTP flood attacks. CONNECT attack is a novel attack in WSN. CONNECT attack plays a crucial role through disrupting packet transmission and node connections and significantly impacts CPU performance. Detecting and preventing CONNECT attacks is imperative for enhancing WSN efficiency. During a CONNECT attack, nodes fail to respond to legitimate requests, resulting in connectivity delays, acknowledgment delays, and packet drop attacks in IoT-WSN nodes. This article introduces an Intrusion Detection Algorithm based on the Cyclic Analysis Method (CAM), which incorporates a forward selection approach and backward elimination method. CAM analyzes routing information and behavior within the WSN, facilitating the identification of malicious paths and nodes. The proposed approach aims to pinpoint and mitigate the risks associated with CONNECT attacks, emphasizing the identification of malevolent pathways and nodes while establishing multiple disjoint loop-free routes for seamless data delivery in the IoT-WSN. Furthermore, the performance of CAM is assessed based on metrics such as malicious node detection accuracy, connectivity, packet loss, and network traffic. Simulation results using Matlab software demonstrate superior accuracy in malicious node detection, achieving accuracy in attack detection of approximately 99%, surpassing traditional algorithms accuracy of attack detection.

MOCRAW: A Meta-heuristic Optimized Cluster head selection based Routing Algorithm for WSNs

In Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs), sensors are deployed in a specific region to sense the environment’s physical parameters. After sensing, data is processed and sent to the base station through a given route. Sensing and transmitting nodes consume a lot of energy; hence nodes die quickly; therefore, hot spot problems occur. Henceforth, data transmission is done by a single route; thus, WSNs experience network overhead problems. Nowadays, the enhancement of the energy of WSNs remains a challenging issue. Alternatively, efficient processes such as routing or clustering may be improved. Dynamic cluster head selection can be considered an important decision approach for optimal path selection and saving energy. This paper proposes a Meta-heuristic Optimized Cluster head selection-based Routing algorithm for WSNs (MOCRAW) to minimize node’s energy consumption and fast data transmission. MOCRAW removes isolated nodes or hot-spot problems and provides loop-free routing with the help of the Dragonfly Algorithm (DA), wherein the decision is based on Local Search Optimization (LSO) and Global Search Optimization (GSO). This protocol exploits two sub-processes: the optimal Cluster Head Selection Algorithm (CHSA) and Route Search Algorithm (RSA). CHSA uses Energy Level Matrix (ELM). ELM is based on node density, residual energy, the distance between Cluster Head (CH) and Base Station (BS), and inter-cluster formation. The inter-cluster discovers the optimum path between source to destination in RSA by levy distribution. MOCRAW performance is compared with other clustering and routing protocols on parameters such as the number of alive nodes, delay, packet delivery ratio, and average energy consumption. Simulation-based findings exhibit that the proposed methodology surpasses its peers and competitors in terms of energy efficiency.

An Intelligent Optimized Route-Discovery Model for IoT-Based VANETs

Intelligent Transportation system are becoming an interesting research area, after Internet of Things (IoT)-based sensors have been effectively incorporated in vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs). The optimal route discovery in a VANET plays a vital role in establishing reliable communication in uplink and downlink direction. Thus, efficient optimal path discovery without a loop-free route makes network communication more efficient. Therefore, this challenge is addressed by nature-inspired optimization algorithms because of their simplicity and flexibility for solving different kinds of optimization problems. NIOAs are copied from natural phenomena and fall under the category of metaheuristic search algorithms. Optimization problems in route discovery are intriguing because the primary objective is to find an optimal arrangement, ordering, or selection process. Therefore, many researchers have proposed different kinds of optimization algorithm to maintain the balance between intensification and diversification. To tackle this problem, we proposed a novel Java macaque algorithm based on the genetic and social behavior of Java macaque monkeys. The behavior model mimicked from the Java macaque monkey maintains well-balanced exploration and exploitation in the search process. The experimentation outcome depicts the efficiency of the proposed Java macaque algorithm compared to existing algorithms such as discrete cuckoo search optimization (DCSO) algorithm, grey wolf optimizer (GWO), particle swarm optimization (PSO), and genetic algorithm (GA).

A Novel Routing Control Technique for the Energy Hole in the Underwater Acoustic Distributed Network

The energy hole is a severe problem for underwater acoustic distributed networks in that it affects the normal operations of the network and shortens the network’s life span. To deal with this problem, a loop-free routing control technique is proposed in this paper. The classical shortest-path routing control method is used to generate multiple disjointed routing tables. The residual energy of the nodes and the changing information of the uplink/downlink matrix are added to the data frames for distribution. The source node specifies the routing path to transmit the data frames based on the changing information, and the relay nodes route the data frames strictly according to the routing path designated by the source node. Besides, the energy consumption of the relay node is saved by replying to the pseudo-ACK frame. Simulation experiments are implemented in four typical scenarios, and the results reflect that the proposed technique could extend the network’s life span by approximately 10% when compared to other mature techniques. Besides, it has no other negative effects on the normal operations of the network.

Improved route selection algorithm based on TORA over mobile adhoc network

MANETs are used in a variety of applications due to their ability to establish and release networks instantly without the need for a pre-established network or infrastructure. Here the challenging task is to search for the most efficient routing Energy is the main source of MANET and each node consumes energy during transmission. Energy-efficient protocols like AODV, DSR, TORA, etc. have already been proposed. In our proposed work we are using TORA to improve route selection. “Temporarily Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA) is an adaptive loop-free routing protocol that works on route reversal method. The protocol is based on a link reversal algorithm and uses a direct acyclic graph (DAG) for route finding. As TORA maintains multi routes from source to destination, the energy drain is an issue so energy efficiency is of utmost importance. In this work, Mod TORA work as a load balancer with successor and feasible successor path for each connection considers the energy parameter & modifies the routing table. The purpose of selecting load balance is for the Fair battery consumption of the nodes and link failure purpose. We are changing the route selection mechanism. Mod TORA used Energy and multipath mechanism with optimized routing. The two best routes are found and if the first one fails then the second route is selected, to improve the performance of TORA and thus ultimately leading to load balancing.

Lightpath routing and wavelength assignment for static demand in translucent optical networks

Translucent optical networks use sparsely located regenerator nodes to increase the optical reach, otherwise limited by the physical layer impairments. Routing in translucent networks often causes the lightpath to traverse a fiber more than once, requiring the use of multiple wavelengths on a fiber for the same lightpath. Most of the routing and wavelength assignment (RWA) algorithms for static demand in translucent networks (termed static RWA) require loop-free routes for shortest path routing and also are agnostic to traffic load. In this paper, we address the problem of static RWA in translucent networks without using physical layer information and show how to route lightpaths on paths with a loop (i.e., not a simple path). We propose integer linear programming formulation to get the exact solutions to the static RWA problem. This work is the first one to optimally solve the static RWA problem for non-simple paths, providing the lower bound on the number of wavelengths and regeneration needed for static lightpath establishment when regeneration facilities are limited. We propose a heuristic algorithm based on the concept of Wardrop equilibrium, to adaptively equalize the mean delay along all the lightpath routes from source to destination. The proposed heuristic can not only accommodate the correlation between feasible lightpath routes but also account for the fact that alternate routes correspond to different levels of choice randomness. Wavelength assignment is done using graph coloring with branch-and-price method. Numerical results demonstrate that the proposed heuristic reduces the number of regenerators and wavelengths required to satisfy a given demand.

New Discrete Cuckoo Search Optimization Algorithms for Effective Route Discovery in IoT-Based Vehicular Ad-Hoc Networks

Recently, the Internet of Things (IoT) is widely considered in vehicular ad-hoc networks (VANETs) for use in intelligent transportation systems. In particular, the pervasive deployment of different sensors in modern vehicles has unlocked interesting possibilities for improving routing performance in VANETs. Nevertheless, the discovery of short single loop-free routes for effective and efficient information dissemination in VANETs remains a challenge. This challenge proves more difficult to solve since it reduces to the case of finding the shortest Hamiltonian path for effective routing in VANETs. Consequently, in this paper, we propose two discretized variants of the cuckoo search optimization (CSO) algorithm, namely, the Levy flight-based discrete CSO (LF-DCSO) and the random walk-based discrete CSO (RW-DCSO) for effective route discovery in VANETs. In addition, we investigated the inverse mutation operator gleaned from genetic algorithm (GA) in order to improve the exploration properties of our DCSO variants. We describe a new objective function that effectively models the reliability of individual links between nodes that comprise a single route. A detailed report of the routing protocol that controls the routing process is presented. Our proposed methods were compared against the roulette wheel-based GA and the improved k-means-based GA termed IGAROT. Specifically, our findings reveal that there was no significant difference in the performance of the different methods in the low vehicle density scenario, however, in the medium vehicle density scenario, the RW-DCSO algorithm achieved 2.56%, 100%, and 128.57% percentage increment in its route reliability score over the LF-DCSO, RW-GA, and IGAROT algorithms, respectively. Whereas in the high vehicle density scenario, the LF-DCSO algorithm achieved a percentage increment of 42.85%, 525%, and 733.33% in the route reliability score obtained over the RW-DCSO, IGAROT, and RW-GA algorithms, respectively. Such results suggest that our methods are able to guarantee effective routing in VANETs.

LSDAR: A light-weight structure based data aggregation routing protocol with secure internet of things integrated next-generation sensor networks

Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) gains a lot of research devotion because of their unique features as compared to traditional networks. The resource constraints next-generation sensors are interconnected in billions for the foundation of the large-sized Internet of Things (IoT). Due to the large-sized deployment of IoT devices and their dynamic conditions, existing security mechanisms do not meet the requirements of protection against malicious adversaries. Moreover, because of the unreliable and open-access Internet medium, traditional routing protocols are vulnerable to a variety of malicious threats and compromised to data security. Thus, the aim of this research article is to present a novel light-weight structure based Data Aggregation Routing (LSDAR) protocol for IoT integrated Next-generation Sensor Networks for the improvement of energy routing performance with node level data protection against malicious threats. Firstly, the network nodes are decomposed into independent clusters based on varying radiuses and preventing energy holes around the locality of the base station (BS). Secondly, based on the A-star heuristics algorithm, efficient and loop-free routing paths are constructed. Furthermore, the end-to end communication links are protected against malicious nodes by using mathematically unbreakable one time pad (OTP) encryption scheme to provide data security. The simulation results indicate significant improvements with the comparison of the state-of-the-art in terms of energy consumption, network lifetime, an end to end delay and packet drop ratio.

P-AUV: Position aware routing and medium access for ad hoc AUV networks

Autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) networks are used for coordinated missions such as area mapping and remote surveillance. AUVs are typically deployed by a central platform such as a ship or a submarine, and they operate in an unattended environment. Although there is no need for continuous monitoring of AUV nodes, the central platform may occasionally need to send messages, route updates, or mission commands to the AUV fleet. Nodes in an AUV network are mobile and self-powered. Moreover, periodic exchange of neighborhood messages is not practical due to large propagation delays. Therefore, reliable, low-latency, and energy-efficient solutions are needed to meet the performance requirements of ad hoc AUV networks. We propose P-AUV as a routing and medium access protocol, which depends on location estimation at each node. Data required for packet relaying decision is carried in the header of each data packet. Loop-free routes are generated, where relay candidates closer to the sink nodes are prioritized. In order to control medium access and to avoid collisions, each node selects a backoff interval according to its own position. We analyze the performance of our solution and we compare P-AUV with probabilistic broadcast in terms of several network parameters. Our results indicate that P-AUV improves packet delivery ratio and end-to-end delay along with lifetime of AUV networks.

Loop-Free Route Updates for Software-Defined Networks

We consider the fundamental problem of updating arbitrary routes in a software-defined network in a (transiently) loop-free manner. Our objective is to compute fast network update schedules which minimize the number of interactions (i.e., rounds) between the controller and the network nodes. We first prove that this problem is difficult in general: The problem of deciding whether a k-round update schedule exists is NP-complete already for k = 3, and there are problem instances requiring Ω(n) rounds, where n is the network size. Given these negative results, we introduce an attractive, relaxed notion of loop-freedom. We show that relaxed loop-freedom admits for much shorter update schedules (up to a factor Ω(n) in the best case), and present a scheduling algorithm which requires at most Θ(log n) rounds.

Performance analysis of EEDR routing protocol for WSNs

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) possess formidable design challenges in Energy constrained operation, Communication range, Memory and processing power constraints, Bandwidth constrained links, Dynamic network topologies and Network traffic patterns. These new-found types of networks are largely dictated by application requirements and characterized by severe resource constraints in terms of available energy, computational and communication capabilities. Routing is one of the significant design considerations in WSNs, more especially under severe energy constraints. In this paper the Energy Efficient Distributed Receiver (EEDR) based routing protocol for WSNs is proposed. The proposed work employs the concept of initiating the route from the receiver side instead of sender side. The procedure aims to opt the best route from the multiple routes based on the quality of the multiple channels. The main outcomes of EEDR protocol are (1) Finding a stable route between the source and the destination, (2) adaptation to dynamic conditions of the links with very small delay, (3) Reducing the power consumption of node, (4) Improving the lifetime of the node. The simulation results shows that, for EEDR protocol, the node energy consumption is very less, reduced end-to-end delay and increased throughput. EEDR also ensures loop free routing with reduced hop count.

An energy-balanced loop-free routing protocol for distributed wireless sensor networks

To prolong the network lifespan, the energy-balanced routing algorithm builds its routes based on a weighted sum of node's depth, residual energy and energy density. It is a pity that this algorithm introduces routing loops and redundant hops, which result in end-to-end delay and consuming more energy. More seriously, packets cannot reach the sink. In this paper, to avoid routing loop and redundancy, a novel next-hop selection method is proposed, moreover, the routing loop and redundant hops detection and elimination mechanism have been built up. Theoretical analysis and simulation experiments show that the network lifespan is stretched by 68.72% and 24.65% compared with minimum hop routing and energy-balanced routing protocol EBRP separately.

HDEER: A Distributed Routing Scheme for Energy-Efficient Networking

The proliferation of new online Internet services has substantially increased the energy consumption in wired networks, which has become a critical issue for Internet service providers. In this paper, we target the network-wide energy-saving problem by leveraging speed scaling as the energy-saving strategy. We propose a distributed routing scheme–HDEER–to improve network energy efficiency in a distributed manner without significantly compromising traffic delay. HDEER is a two-stage routing scheme where a simple distributed multipath finding algorithm is firstly performed to guarantee loop-free routing, and then a distributed routing algorithm is executed for energy-efficient routing in each node among the multiple loop-free paths. We conduct extensive experiments on the NS3 simulator and simulations with real network topologies in different scales under different traffic scenarios. Experiment results show that HDEER can reduce network energy consumption with a fair tradeoff between network energy consumption and traffic delay.

Distance Vector-based Advance Reservation with Delay Performance Guarantees

We explore and demonstrate the feasibility of implementing distributed solutions for advance reservation of network resources. We introduce a new distributed, distance-vector algorithm, called Distributed Advance Reservation (DAR), that provably returns the earliest time possible for setting up a connection between any two nodes. Our main findings are the following: (i) we prove that widest path routing and path switching (i.e, allowing a connection to switch between different paths) are necessary to guarantee earliest scheduling; (ii) we propose and analyze a novel approach for loop-free distributed widest path routing, leveraging the recently proposed DIV framework. Our routing results directly extend to on-demand and inter-domain QoS routing problems.

Enhancing the Computation of Distributed Shortest Paths on Power-law Networks in Dynamic Scenarios

The problem of finding and keeping updated shortest paths in distributed networks is considered crucial in today's practical applications. In the recent past, there has been a renewed interest in devising new efficient distance-vector algorithms as an attractive alternative to link-state solutions for large-scale Ethernet networks, in which scalability and reliability are key issues or the nodes can have limited storage capabilities. In this paper, we present Distributed Computation Pruning (DCP), a new technique, which can be combined with every distance-vector routing algorithm based on shortest paths, allowing to reduce the total number of messages sent by that algorithm and its space occupancy per node. To check its effectiveness, we combined the new technique with DUAL (Diffuse Update ALgorithm), one of the most popular distance-vector algorithm in the literature, which is part of CISCO's widely used EIGRP protocol, and with the recently introduced LFR (Loop Free Routing) which has been shown to have good performances on real networks. We give experimental evidence that these combinations lead to a significant gain both in terms of number of messages sent and of memory requirements per node.

Border Gateway Protocol Performance and its Protection against Disturbed Denial of Service attack

Now a day the internet has become very popular in the world. Simple work to complicated work you can accomplish by using internet. Such popularity leads to chances of exhaustion of Internet protocol version 4 which is currently available. To overcome such problem, IPv6 comes in the picture. IPv6 provides more address space, better addressing mechanism and equipped with high security protocol. Unfortunately these IP versions are not compatible to each other. To make such protocol compatible, various tunnelling mechanism are using. Along with tunnelling mechanism, various inter-networking attack like DDoS etc. become serious issues for various routing protocol e.g. Border Gateway Protocol (BGP). Such attacks make an impact to the performance of system such as delay, more updates, insufficient bandwidth utilizations and loss of valuable signal. In this paper we propose a tunnelling mechanism which is based on the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP). BGP is an inter domain routing protocol basically designed to provide loop-free routing links between organizations. BGP is designed to work over a trustable transport layer protocol; it uses Transport Control Protocol TCP port 179 as the transport protocol layer because TCP is a connection-oriented protocol. We have also proposed two theorem to secure the Internet from Domain Name Server (DNS), Distributed Denial of service(DDoS) attacks which is using Border gateway routing protocol, first one to isolate defected region and correct region, suppressed unnecessary updates without hampering any effect on the define path. Secondly, to cut down the route swinging which is responsible to generates hell lot of updates and the paths selected are scrutinized to remove the attacked links. Our simulation shows the methods to eliminate false number of unwanted updates under the influence of the attacks, and isolate the effected part from the network. Keywords: BGP, DDoS, DNS, IPV4, IPV6, Tunneling

An Energy Balanced Loop-Free Routing Protocol for Distributed Wireless Sensor Networks

To prolong the network lifespan, the energy-balanced routing algorithm builds its routes based on a weighted sum of node's depth, residual energy and energy density. It is a pity that this algorithm introduces routing loops and redundant hops, which result in end-to-end delay and consuming more energy. More seriously, packets cannot reach the sink. In this paper, to avoid routing loop and redundancy, a novel next-hop selection method is proposed, moreover, the routing loop and redundant hops detection and elimination mechanism have been built up. Theoretical analysis and simulation experiments show that the network lifespan is stretched by 68.72% and 24.65% compared with minimum hop routing and energy-balanced routing protocol (EBRP) separately.

Border Gateway Protocol Performance and Its Protection against Disturbed Denial of Service Attack

Now a day the internet has become very popular in the world. Simple work to complicated work you can accomplish by using internet. Such popularity leads to chances of exhaustion of Internet protocol version 4 which is currently available. To overcome such problem, IPv6 comes in the picture. IPv6 provides more address space, better addressing mechanism and equipped with high security protocol. Unfortunately these IP versions are not compatible to each other. To make such protocol compatible, various tunnelling mechanism are using. Along with tunnelling mechanism, various inter-networking attack like DDoS etc. become serious issues for various routing protocol e.g. Border Gateway Protocol (BGP). Such attacks make an impact to the performance of system such as delay, more updates, insufficient bandwidth utilizations and loss of valuable signal. In this paper we propose a tunnelling mechanism which is based on the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP). BGP is an inter domain routing protocol basically designed to provide loop-free routing links between organizations. BGP is designed to work over a trustable transport layer protocol; it uses Transport Control Protocol TCP port 179 as the transport protocol layer because TCP is a connection-oriented protocol. We have also proposed two theorem to secure the Internet from Domain Name Server (DNS), Distributed Denial of service(DDoS) attacks which is using Border gateway routing protocol, first one to isolate defected region and correct region, suppressed unnecessary updates without hampering any effect on the define path. Secondly, to cut down the route swinging which is responsible to generates hell lot of updates and the paths selected are scrutinized to remove the attacked links. Our simulation shows the methods to eliminate false number of unwanted updates under the influence of the attacks, and isolate the effected part from the network.

Towards fast rerouting-based energy efficient routing

The inefficiency of energy usage on the Internet has become a critical problem with its rapid growth, as all network devices operate at full capacity in spite of the real traffic load. Existing studies try to develop energy efficient routings by aggregating traffic and switching underutilized devices into sleep mode. However, most existing approaches do not address the problem of routing convergence well. Since traffic changes frequently in a network, routing convergence may be triggered frequently for an energy efficient routing, which may induce routing loops and black holes, resulting in severe packet loss. In this paper, we present a fast rerouting-based (FRR-based) energy efficient routing scheme, namely GreenFRR, which leverages the technique of fast rerouting to reduce the convergence time. We first study typical fast rerouting techniques and address the challenge of guaranteeing loop-free routing. Then, we formalize the FRR-based energy efficient routing problem and prove that the problem is NP-hard. In order to solve this problem, we design heuristic algorithms to maximize the number of sleeping links. In particular, we consider link utilization ratio and path stretch in our algorithms. We evaluate our scheme by simulations on real and synthetic topologies with real and synthetic traffic traces. The results show that the power consumed by line cards achieves a saving of 40% and the convergence time can be reduced by 95%.

A hop-by-hop energy efficient distributed routing scheme

Energy inefficiencies in current networks provide both challenges and opportunities for energy saving. Recently, there are many works focusing on minimizing energy cost from the routing perspective. However, most existing work view them as optimization problems and solve them in a centralized manner such as with a solver or using approximations. In this paper, we focus on a network-wide bi-objective optimization problem, which simultaneously minimizes the total energy consumption using speed scaling and the total traffic delay. We propose a hop-by-hop dynamic distributed routing scheme for the implementation of this network-wide optimization problem. Our scheme is more practical to realize in large distributed networks compared with current centralized energy minimization methods. We can also achieve near global optimal in a distributed manner, while most used shortest path routing protocols such as OSPF cannot make it. Our routing scheme is totally distributed and maintains loop-free routes in every instant. Simulations conducted in real data sets show that the distributed loop-free routing scheme converges to near Pareto optimal values. Also, our method outperforms the widely applied shortest path routing strategy by 30% in energy saving.