Longitudinal Path Model Research Articles

Construct Validation for Toddler-Solicited Maternal Comforting Behavior as Relevant to Family Accommodation and Child Anxiety Risk.

Reciprocal parent-child interactions are theorized to play a crucial role in child anxiety development and maintenance. The current study tested whether toddler-solicited maternal comforting behavior in low-threat (mildly challenging and novel) situations may be a unique, early indicator of anxiety-relevant interactions. Controlling for other types of maternal comforting behavior, a path model tested solicited comforting behavior in a low-threat context in relation to both family accommodation (FA) and child anxiety symptoms, which may subsequently continue to predict each other over time. Identifying the emergence of this cycle in early childhood could bolster anxiety development theory and preventative interventions. Mother-child dyads (n = 166) of predominantly non-Hispanic/Latinx European American and socioeconomically diverse backgrounds were assessed at child ages 2, 4, and school-age via laboratory observation and maternal report. A longitudinal path model showed that solicited comforting observed in a low-threat situation at age 2 predicted mother-reported FA and child anxiety symptoms at age 4, above and beyond unsolicited comforting behavior and comforting behavior in a high-threat context. Furthermore, FA and child anxiety were bidirectionally related between age 4 and school-age assessments. Results suggest that toddler-solicited comforting in low-threat situations may be a unique indicator of child-directed anxiogenic family processes. The current study also expands the FA literature by providing empirical evidence for a bi-directional relation between anxiety and accommodation in young children.

Participant characteristics associated with the effects of a physical and cognitive training program on executive functions.

Physical and cognitive interventions have been shown to induce positive effects on older adults' executive functioning. However, since participants with different background characteristics may respond differently to such interventions, we investigated whether training effects on executive functions were associated with sex, training compliance, and age. We also investigated if change in global cognition was associated with physical and cognitive training intervention-induced changes in executive functions. Exploratory data from a randomized controlled trial were analyzed. Participants were 70-85-year-old men and women who received a 12-month physical (PT) or physical and cognitive training (PTCT) intervention. Measurements of executive functions related to inhibition (Stroop), set shifting (Trail Making Test B) and updating (Verbal Fluency) were performed at baseline and 12 months. Data were analyzed using a longitudinal linear path model for the two measurements occasion. Stroop improved significantly more in women and participants in the low compliance subgroup who received PTCT than in counterparts in the PT subgroup (difference -8.758, p = 0.001 and difference -8.405, p = 0.010, respectively). In addition, TMT B improved after the intervention in the low compliance PTCT subgroup and worsened in the corresponding PT subgroup (difference -15.034, p = 0.032). No other significant associations were observed. Executive functions in women and in the participants, who only occasionally engaged in training showed greater improvement after the PTCT than PT intervention. However, the additional extra benefit gained from the PTCT intervention was uniquely expressed in each executive function measured in this study.

Perceived empowerment and the impact of negative effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the quality of life of persons with severe mental illness.

Beyond its direct effects on physical health the COVID-19 pandemic has been shown to have negative effects on the living situation of people with severe mental illness (SMI). To date, there has been little research on resilience factors preventing people with SMI from experiencing negative effects of the COVID-19 pandemic. The objective of this study was to investigate the role of perceived empowerment (PE) as a resilience factor, preventing people with SMI from experiencing negative effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on daily living. We investigated negative effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on daily living in 931 persons with SMI at two times within six month between June 2020 and Mai 2021. To take into account the longitudinal structure of the data we applied mixed effects regression analyses and longitudinal path models. A majority of participants experienced negative effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on several dimensions of daily living. Negative effects increased with rising levels of illness-related impairment but decreased as the level of PE rose. While negative effects of the COVID-19 pandemic at follow-up were negatively associated with overall subjective quality of life baseline, PE was negatively associated with the negative impact of the pandemic and positively with quality of life. Patients with SMI need support to reduce negative effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on their quality of life. The promotion of PE could help strengthen resilience in this target group. German Clinical Trial Register, DRKS00019086, registered on 3 January 2020. (https://www.drks.de/drks_web/navigate.do?navigationId=trial.HTML&TRIAL_ID=DRKS00019086).

A Longitudinal Investigation of Resilience as a Protective Factor During the COVID-19 Pandemic.

COVID-19 is a global stressor that has been shown to impact mental health outcomes. Given that COVID-19 is a unique stressor that has been shown to have mental health consequences, identifying protective factors is imperative. The protective influences of resilience are demonstrated through the extant literature, though less is known about resilience and COVID-19 impact. The current study seeks to expand the existing literature on resilience, and on mental health outcomes influenced by COVID-19, by longitudinally investigating relative resilience as a buffer against posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms and alcohol consumption, in the wake of a global pandemic. Participants included 549 undergraduates with a history of lifetime trauma exposure. Using a longitudinal path model, we tested the interaction between relative resilience (i.e., an individual's deviation from distress levels predicted by prior trauma exposure relative to other individuals in the same cohort) and COVID-19 impact domains (i.e., social media use, worry, exposure, change in substance use, and housing/food insecurity) on PTSD symptoms and alcohol consumption. Findings demonstrate a significant interaction between the COVID-19 worry impact domain and baseline resilience on later PTSD symptoms, whereby COVID-19 worry impacts PTSD symptoms at low levels of resilience (β = .26, p < .001), marginally impacts PTSD symptoms at mean levels of resilience (β = .09, p = .05), and does not impact PTSD symptoms at high levels of resilience (β = -.08, p = .16). There were no significant main effects nor interaction effects of resilience on alcohol consumption. This article adds to the literature on resilience and COVID-19 through examining both internalizing (i.e., PTSD) and substance use outcomes, using longitudinal data, and using a quantitative measure of resilience.

Longitudinal Associations of Perceived Mastery and Constraints With Coping and Their Implications for Functional Health for Aging Adults.

The present study examined longitudinal associations of distinct dimensions of perceived control (i.e., perceived mastery and constraints) with approach and avoidance coping relating to functional health for aging adults, which had not been well studied previously. Using data from two waves of Midlife in the United States (N = 4,963, whose mean age was 55.4 [SD = 12.5]), a longitudinal path model was analyzed for direct and indirect effects among perceived mastery and constraints, approach and avoidance coping, and functional limitations. Bidirectional associations were observed between perceived mastery and approach coping and between perceived constraints and avoidance coping. Moreover, perceived constraints not only were directly associated with functional limitations but also mediated the longitudinal associations of the other factors of interest with functional limitations. These findings can inform future research on perceived control and coping in the context of promoting functional health.

Predicting out-of-school suspensions among youth in care in England: A national cohort study

Previous research has indicated that youth in care are at a disproportionally high risk of being suspended from school. Yet, research on this topic is scarce despite the detrimental effects such disciplinary actions can have on the educational development of this vulnerable group. Therefore, the goal of this study was to explore a longitudinal path model of factors associated with the risk of being suspended from secondary school among a national cohort of 3699 children placed in care in England. Using data from the National Pupil Database and the Children Looked after Database, children were tracked from School Year 2 through School Year 9 in order to test the direct and mediated effects of individual factors (i.e., gender, eligibility for free school meals, special educational needs, and belonging to an ethnic minority background), care factors (i.e., age of entry into care, reason for out-of-home placement, placement type and length of time in care) and educational factors (i.e., school type, achievements, absences and suspensions in Year 6 and school type in Year 9) on the risk of suspension in Year 9. Results indicated that approximately 1 in 5 children in care in England (19.4%) are suspended at least once during their secondary School Year 9; these proportions markedly exceed those previously found among their general population peers. Children found to be most at risk for out-of-school suspensions were (a) males; (b) late entrants into care; (c) children who had behavioral, emotional, or social difficulties; and (d) children with a history of suspensions. Surprisingly, being eligible for free school meals and having lower academic achievement was related to a decreased risk of being suspended. These findings are discussed in consideration of the interrelationships among variables and the mediating pathways found. Implications for schools and educators catering for youth in care are also discussed.

The Role of Friends and Romantic Partners in College-Attending Emerging Adults’ Engagement and GPA

The current study examines the impact of perceived academic support from closest same-sex friends and romantic partners on two indicators of academic success: GPA (reported by the registrar’s office) and student engagement. Utilizing a longitudinal, daily-diary design, we investigate whether perceived academic support from closest same-sex friends and perceived academic support from romantic partners are unique constructs. Longitudinal path models also test the associations between academic support, student engagement, and GPA. Participants were emerging adults attending college ( N = 246) at a large, Midwestern U.S. university, who were in a committed romantic relationship for at least 4 months. Results suggest academic support from friends and academic support from romantic partners are unique constructs. Academic support from friends, but not romantic partners, is positively associated with student engagement, which subsequently predicts GPA. These findings build upon work demonstrating the importance of close relationships in undergraduate student engagement and achievement.

A longitudinal pathway from ethnic-racial discrimination to sexual risk behaviors among Black women and Latinas: Ethnic-racial identity exploration as a protective factor

BackgroundBlack women and Latinas in their thirties continue to be at risk for HIV transmission via heterosexual intercourse. MethodsInformed by the Theory of Gender and Power, this study investigated a longitudinal path model linking experiences of ethnic-racial discrimination in late adolescence to sexual risk behaviors in adulthood among 492 Black women and Latinas. We also tested whether ethnic-racial identity exploration served as a resilience asset protecting women against the psychological impact of ethnic-racial discrimination. Survey data from female participants in the Harlem Longitudinal Development Study, which has followed a cohort of New York City Black and Latinx youth since 1990, were analyzed. Data for this analysis were collected at four time points when participants were on average 19, 24, 29, and 32 years of age. Structural equation modeling was used to examine a hypothesized pathway from earlier ethnic-racial discrimination to later sexual risk behaviors and the protective role of ethnic-racial identity exploration. ResultsResults confirmed that ethnic-racial discrimination in late adolescence was linked with sexual risk behaviors in the early thirties via increased levels of affective distress in emerging adulthood, experiences of victimization in young adulthood, and substance use in the early thirties among women low in ethnic-racial identity exploration. We also found that ethnic-racial identity served as a resilience asset, as the association between discrimination in late adolescence and affective distress in emerging adulthood was not significant among women with higher levels of ethnic-racial identity exploration. ConclusionsThe results provide important preliminary evidence that ethnic-racial identity exploration may serve as a resilience asset among Black women and Latinas confronting racial discrimination. Further, we suggest that ethnic-racial identity exploration may constitute an important facet of critical consciousness.

Predictors of loneliness during the Covid-19 pandemic in people with dementia and their carers in England: findings from the DETERMIND-C19 study

Objectives To identify factors that predict the risk of loneliness for people with dementia and carers during a pandemic. Methods People with dementia and their carers completed assessments before (July 2019–March 2020; 206 dyads) and after (July–October 2020) the first Covid-19 ‘lockdown’ in England. At follow-up, the analytic sample comprised 67 people with dementia and 108 carers. We built a longitudinal path model with loneliness as an observed outcome. Carer type and social contacts at both measurements were considered. Other social resources (quality of relationship, formal day activities), wellbeing (anxiety, psychological wellbeing) and cognitive impairment were measured with initial level and change using latent growth curves. We adjusted for socio-demographic factors and health at baseline. Results In carers, higher levels of loneliness were directly associated with non-spouse coresident carer type, level and increase of anxiety in carer, more formal day activities, and higher cognitive impairment in the person with dementia. In people with dementia, non-spouse coresident carer type, and higher initial levels of social resources, wellbeing, and cognitive impairment predicted the changes in these factors; this produced indirect effects on social contacts and loneliness. Conclusion Loneliness in the Covid-19 pandemic appears to be shaped by different mechanisms for people with dementia and their carers. The results suggest that carers of those with dementia may prioritize providing care that protects the person with dementia from loneliness at the cost of experiencing loneliness themselves. Directions for the promotion of adaptive social care during the Covid-19 pandemic and beyond are discussed.

Is patient activation a mediator of the effect of a health promoting intervention in adults at high risk of type 2 diabetes? A longitudinal path model analysis within a randomised trial

BackgroundExploring mediators of preventive intervention effects has important implications for the planning of complex interventions. Our aim was to assess the extent to which knowledge, skills and confidence to manage health, here measured as “patient activation”, was a mediator of the effect of the intervention “Live your life without diabetes” on weight, waist circumference and systolic blood pressure at 12 months follow-up in adults at high risk of type 2 diabetes.MethodsAutoregressive path models with three time points of measurement, and contemporaneous and constant b paths were used in a randomised controlled trial (RCT). The RCT took place in a Danish municipal healthcare center and included 127 individuals aged 28 to 70 years with fasting plasma glucose: 6.1–6.9 mmol/l and/or glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c): 42.0–47.9 mmol/mol. Participants were randomised to routine care (n = 64), or intervention (n = 63). The intervention group received an empirical and theory-based intervention delivered over four two-h group sessions during five weeks, and two further sessions after one and six months. The outcomes were weight, waist circumference and systolic blood pressure, and the mediator was patient activation, measured by the self-reported Patient Activation Measure (PAM). Data for the present study was derived from questionnaires and clinical measures from baseline, three- and 12-months follow-up.ResultsMediated effects via PAM on: weight: − 0.09 kg (95% CI − 0.38 to 0.20) out of the total effect − 1.09 kg (95% CI − 3.05 to 0.87); waist circumference: − 0.04 cm (95% CI − 0.36 to 0.28) out of the total effect − 1.86 cm (95% CI − 4.10 to 0.39); and systolic blood pressure: − 0.31 mmHg (− 1.10 to 0.49) out of the total effect − 2.73 mmHg (95% CI − 6.34 to 0.87).ConclusionWe found no mediating effects of patient activation as a single variable of the intervention “Live your life without diabetes” on weight, waist circumference and systolic blood pressure at 12 months follow-up in adults at high risk of type 2 diabetes. Our study demonstrates an analytic approach for estimating mediating effects in complex interventions that comply with the criteria on temporal ordered data. Future studies should include possible interacting variables.

The impact of maternal depressive symptoms and traumatic events on early childhood mental health in conflict-affected Timor-Leste.

Longitudinal studies are needed to examine the association between maternal depression, trauma and childhood mental health in conflict-affected settings. To examine maternal depressive symptoms, trauma-related adversities and child mental health by using a longitudinal path model in conflict-affected Timor-Leste. Women were recruited in pregnancy. At wave 1, 1672 of 1740 eligible women were interviewed (96% response rate). The final sample comprised 1118 women with complete data at all three time points. Women were followed up when the index child was aged 18 months (wave 2) and 36 months (wave 3). Measures included the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale, lifetime traumatic events and the Child Behaviour Checklist. A longitudinal path analysis examined associations cross-sectionally and in a cross-lagged manner across time. Maternal depressive symptom score was associated with child mental health (cross-sectional association at wave 2, β = 0.35, P < 0.001; cross-sectional association at wave 3, β = 0.33, P < 0.001). The maternal depressive symptom score at wave 1 was associated with child mental health at wave 2 (β = 0.12, P < 0.001), and the maternal depressive symptom score at wave 2 showed an indirect association with child mental health at wave 3 (indirect standardised coefficient 0.23, P < 0.001). There was a time-lagged relationship between child mental health at wave 2 and maternal depression at wave 3 (β = 0.08, P = 0.02). Maternal depressive symptoms are longitudinally associated with child mental health, and traumatic events play a role. Maternal depression symptoms are also affected by child mental health. Findings suggest the need for skilled assessment for depression, trauma-informed maternity care and parenting support in a post-conflict country such as Timor-Leste.

Mediators for the Effect of Compassion Cultivating Training: A Longitudinal Path Analysis in a Randomized Controlled Trial Among Caregivers of People With Mental Illness.

Background: There is a paucity of research on mediators of change, within compassion training programs. The aim was to investigate the mediators, of an 8-week compassion cultivation training (CCT) program, on the effect of psychological distress on caregivers of people with a mental illness.Method: Longitudinal path models in a randomized controlled trial (RCT). One hundred ninety-two participants were assessed for eligibility, and 161 participants were included into the trial and randomized. The main outcome was psychological distress measured by the Depression, Anxiety and Stress scale at 6 months. Mediators included self-compassion (SC), mindfulness (FM), emotion regulation (ER), emotion suppression (ES), and cognitive reappraisal (CR). Baseline, post, and 3- and 6-month follow-up measurements were collected.Results: The mediated effects for CCT are as follows: depression at 6 months: SC: −1.81 (95% CI: −3.31 to −0.31); FM: −1.98 (95% CI: −3.65 to −0.33); ER: −0.14 (95% CI: −1.31 to 1.02); anxiety at 6 months: SC: −0.71 (95% CI: −1.82 to 0.40); FM: −1.24 (95% CI: −2.39 to −0.09); ER: 0.18 (95% CI: −1.04 to 1.40); stress at 6 months: SC: −1.44 (95% CI: −2.84 to −0.05); FM: −2.17 (95% CI: −3.63 to −0.71); ER: −0.27 (95% CI: −1.51 to 0.98).Conclusion: Mindfulness and self-compassion are important components in reducing psychological distress experienced by informal caregivers of people with a mental illness. Results contribute to the knowledge about the underlying mechanisms of CCT.

Domain general and specific contributions to algebra: A sequenced longitudinal path model

Algebra I is critical for future STEM aspirations. However, current understanding of key predictors has focused on large-scale big data studies (which often lack a strong set of potential cognitive and mathematical predictors) or on individual differences or experimental studies (with relatively small sample sizes). The present study was designed with a strong set of theoretically and empirically motivated mathematical and cognitive predictors of algebra performance and large sample size: 532 students taking Algebra I in Grades 8 or 9. Students were evaluated at the beginning and end of their course. Results revealed direct and indirect effects for an array of domain-general and domain-specific factors, with the most robust effects for language, whole number arithmetic, arithmetic concept understanding, and fractions competency. General patterns held in the context of a variety of demographic covariates though more generally for students taking Algebra I at the standard time relative to those taking it earlier. To prepare students for algebra, and while considering a host of contextual factors, results support the need to build direct and indirect supports for domain-general resources at younger ages, and to provide practice with domain-specific skills.

The development of frustration regulation over early childhood: Links between attention diversion and parasympathetic activity.

Diverting attention away from negative emotional stimuli has been associated with calmer physiological states in the moment, but little is known about the potential long-term effects of this emotion regulation strategy on physiology. Similarly, how physiological states, in turn, may contribute to the development of regulatory behaviors has seldom been examined. The current study investigated the concurrent and prospective associations between children's parasympathetic activity and attention diversion during a frustrating experience over 2.5 years. At 3.5 (n = 83) and 6 years (n = 58), children participated in age-appropriate frustration inductions. Multiphase latent growth curve models were used to model dynamic changes in respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) reactivity to and recovery from frustration. At 6 years, attention diversion was associated with concurrent increases in RSA (increased parasympathetic influence). However, longitudinal path models showed the opposite association. Attention diversion at 3.5 years predicted heightened autonomic arousal at 6 years in the form of greater decreases in RSA throughout the reactivity phase. Additionally, RSA recovery at 3.5 years predicted less use of attention diversion at 6 years. These findings suggest a developmental process by which earlier emotion regulation behaviors shape later physiological responses, with different short- versus long-term correlates of attention diversion. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Transactional relations between maternal anxiety and toddler anxiety risk through toddler‐solicited comforting behavior

Transactional developmental and anxiety theories suggest that mothers and toddlers may influence each other's anxiety development across early childhood. Further, toddlers' successful solicitations of comfort during uncertain, yet manageable, situations, may be a behavioral mechanism by which mothers and toddlers impact each other over time. To test these ideas, the current study employed a longitudinal design to investigate bidirectional relations between maternal anxiety and toddler anxiety risk (observed inhibited temperament and mother-perceived anxiety, analyzed separately), through the mediating role of toddler-solicited maternal comforting behavior, across toddlerhood. Mothers (n = 174; 93.6% European American) and their toddlers (42.4% female; 83.7% European American) participated in laboratory assessments at child ages 1, 2, and 3 years. Mothers self-reported anxiety symptoms. Toddler anxiety risk was observed in the laboratory as inhibited temperament and reported by mothers. Solicited comforting interactions were observed across standardized laboratory tasks. Direct and indirect bidirectional effects were tested simultaneously in two longitudinal path models. Toddler anxiety risk, but not maternal anxiety, predicted solicited comforting behavior, and solicited comforting behavior predicted maternal anxiety. No convincing evidence for parent-directed effects on toddler anxiety risk emerged. Results support continued emphasis on child-elicited effects in child and parent anxiety development in early childhood.

What about school principals’ well-being? The role of social capital

The well-being and mental health of principals is being threatened by changing working conditions such as a broader variety of roles and tasks. In this article, we argue that social capital might buffer against declining (mental) health. The purpose of this study was to investigate the potential influence of social capital, including both internal (bonding) and external (bridging and linking) social capital, on principals’ well-being. A longitudinal study was set up across three waves of data. Questionnaires were collected from 2084 Australian principals and 829 Irish principals, across six and two timepoints, respectively. The hypotheses were tested using a longitudinal path model approach using maximum likelihood estimation in lavaan for R. In line with our hypotheses, the results indicated that principals who reported higher levels of either internal or external social capital also reported higher levels of well-being. More specifically, support from colleagues outside the school and supervisor support (external social capital) and collaboration and trust in management (internal social capital) predicted well-being positively across time. The results of this study highlight the importance of having social support from colleagues and supervisors and possibilities for collaboration to maintain well-being as a school principal.

The association between adverse childhood experiences and young adult outcomes: A scoping study

Study aimsThis scoping study presents the current status of evidence for young adult outcomes associated with adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and identifies knowledge gaps in the literature. MethodsArticles were eligible for review if they were published in peer-reviewed journals between 2010 and 2020, were written in English, and reported original empirical research on the impact of ACEs on young adults ages 18–25. Forty-two articles were selected for full review. ResultsMost ACEs instruments included categories of child abuse and family dysfunction; events that occurred in the child’s social environment were less likely to be considered. Prevalence of ACEs varied widely across studies. Prominent young adult outcomes associated with ACEs were mental health problems and substance use. Approximately one third of the reviewed studies examined either mediators or moderators in the relationship between ACEs and young adult outcomes. ConclusionIt is important to obtain clear consensus on the conceptual meaning and components of ACEs. Future studies employing various research methods, such as a longitudinal design, mixed methods, or complex path models, may enhance understanding of how ACEs impact young adult outcomes and what factors might play a role in these relationships.

Internalized HIV stigma predicts subsequent viremia in US HIV patients through depressive symptoms and antiretroviral therapy adherence.

We sought to examine the prospective association between internalized HIV stigma and unsuppressed viral load and to investigate whether this relationship was sequentially mediated by depressive symptoms and antiretroviral therapy (ART) adherence. Longitudinal study in a multisite observational clinical cohort. The Center for AIDS Research Network of Integrated Clinical Systems patient-reported outcomes survey measures internalized HIV stigma yearly using a four-item assessment (response scale 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). We obtained patient-reported outcome, lab, and appointment data from six center for AIDS research network of integrated clinical systems sites. We used multivariable logistic regression to examine the association between mean stigma and subsequent viremia. We then used Bayesian sequential mediation to fit a longitudinal sequential path model spanning four time points to test if depressive symptoms at T1 and ART adherence at T2 mediated the effect of stigma at T0 on viral load at T3, adjusting for baseline covariates. Between February 2016 and November 2018, 6859 patients underwent stigma assessment and were 81% cis-men, 38% Black, 16% Latinx, 32% heterosexual-identified, and 49% at least 50 years of age. Mean stigma level was 2.00 (SD 1.08). Stigma was significantly associated with subsequent viremia (adjusted odds ratio = 1.16, 95% confidence interval: 1.05-1.28, P = 0.004), as were younger age and Black race. The chained indirect effect from stigma to unsuppressed viral load through depressive symptoms and then adherence was significant (standardized β = 0.002; SD = 0.001). Internalized HIV stigma positively predicts subsequent viremia through depressive symptoms and ART adherence. Addressing the link between stigma and depressive symptoms could help improve viral suppression.

Household economic hardship as a moderator of the associations between maternal spanking and child externalizing behavior problems

BackgroundSpanking is associated with detrimental outcomes for young children. Research shows that spanking is more commonly used in low-income households. ObjectiveTo examine whether economic hardship, measured by household income-to-poverty ratio at the time of the child’s birth, moderated the longitudinal associations between maternal spanking and child externalizing behavior problems during the first nine years of childhood. Participants and settingMother-child pairs (N = 4,149) from a cohort study of urban families in 20 US cities. MethodsCross-lagged path models examined associations between maternal spanking and externalizing behavior when children were between the ages of 1 and 9. Multigroup analyses examined whether income-to-poverty ratio moderated these associations. ResultsBivariate analyses showed that income-to-poverty ratio was associated with child externalizing behavior problems at each time point; income-to-poverty ratio was associated with maternal spanking at age 3 only. Longitudinal path model results indicated that, for low- and middle-income groups, maternal spanking at each age had significant associations with child externalizing behavior at each subsequent age. For the high-income group, maternal spanking at age 1 and age 3 had significant associations with child externalizing behavior at each subsequent age; however, spanking at age 5 was not associated with child externalizing behavior at age 9. ConclusionsSpanking is disadvantageous for children at all income levels, with more persistent effects in low- and middle-income families. For higher-income families, the associations of maternal spanking with child externalizing behavior problems may be attenuated as child age increases. Regardless of income level, parents should be advised against spanking.

Integrating meaning in life and self-determination theory to predict physical activity adoption in previously inactive exercise initiates enrolled in a randomized trial

Self-Determination Theory (SDT) suggests that individuals with greater basic psychological needs satisfaction and autonomous motivation are more likely to adopt physical activity (PA). However, few longitudinal studies have examined these processes in exercise initiates outside the context of a formalized intervention. Further, an implicit yet relatively unexplored tenet of SDT is that when behaviors are closely connected to what is meaningful to individuals, those behaviors are more likely to be maintained. This study had two aims: (a) to examine SDT and a sense of meaning in life (MIL) in relation to PA in previously inactive exercise initiates, and (b) to determine whether daily measurement of MIL, mood, and PA impacts PA engagement. Upon joining a fitness center, participants (N = 160; M age = 43.3 years; 77% female) were recruited for a longitudinal study of PA adoption. Participants were randomized to a daily measurement condition (self-monitoring) where they reported daily MIL, mood, and PA or to an attention control condition. All participants self-reported their PA, basic psychological needs satisfaction, behavioral exercise regulation, and MIL at baseline, 4-weeks, and 12-weeks after starting an exercise program. Longitudinal path models were used to examine the relationships among study variables. Cross-sectionally, SDT constructs were largely related to PA in the expected directions. After accounting for SDT processes, baseline MIL was associated with greater PA at 4-weeks (p = .028). There were no differences in PA, SDT constructs, or MIL between the measurement self-monitoring and control groups. MIL predicted PA adoption above and beyond SDT predictors in previously inactive adults. Combined SDT and MIL intervention approaches may enhance PA adoption, and further research should explore their roles in PA adoption and maintenance.