Longer Fixation Durations Research Articles

The impact of interword spacing on inference processing during text reading: Evidence from eye movements

ABSTRACT Removing interword spacing has been shown to disrupt lower-level oculomotor processes and word identification during text reading. However, the impact of these disruptions on higher-level processes remains unclear. To examine the influence of spacing on inferential processing, we monitored eye movements while participants read spaced and unspaced passages that were strongly or weakly constrained toward an inference. Removing spaces disrupted reading fluency, as evidenced by longer reading times, longer fixation durations, reduced skipping, and shorter saccades. We also observed the effects of inferential constraint for spaced passages as characterized by longer reading times, more regressions, and longer regression-path durations for weakly than strongly constrained passages. However, these constraint effects were absent for unspaced passages, suggesting that removing spaces disrupts inferential processing. Our results are consistent with models of reading and discourse processing that assume that higher-level reading processes depend on the quality of lexical representations developed at earlier, word-level reading stages.

Effects of simulated natural light brightness on visual perception in virtual reality forests: An eye-tracking study

Although natural light is essential for human health and well-being, the potential effects of different brightness levels of light on the visual perception of forests have not been discussed. Using controlled eye-tracking experiments, this study explored the impact of seven simulated natural brightness levels, from the darkest to the brightest, on the visual perception of 118 participants in a virtual reality (VR) forest environment. One of the most significant findings of this study was the marginal effect of natural light brightness levels on visual physiological stress in VR forests, with the pupillary unrest index decreasing significantly with the increase of natural light brightness; Secondly, the study analyzed the influence of natural light brightness levels in VR forests on the visual engagement behavior of eye tracking, that is, bright forest environments showed an overall trend associated with longer fixation duration, less saccade duration, and greater fixation direction ratio; Thirdly, in terms of visual perception evaluation, the study found an inverted U-shaped trend of mood, restorative perception, perceived safety, and natural light brightness level in VR forests. In addition, the study also found a significant correlation between visual physiological and psychological indicators in VR forest natural light visual perception experiments. These findings help us understand the visual perception effect of forest nature light exposure as a whole, and provided important clues and a basis for future research on improving the visual comfort of forest natural light.

Using Eye Movement to Determine Whether Closed-Frame Shots Attract Viewers’ Attention

There is a large variety of photographic composition, and these compositions can illicit different visual and psychological responses in the audience. However, there is limited knowledge of the key factors in these compositions in photography that actually affect the viewing process, and also no empirical support for the relationship between emotional responses and visual cognition. This research applied eye-tracking to calculate the degree of fixation distribution in the process of viewing photographic works through the quantitative characteristics of fixation trajectory in the investigation of the influence of eye-movement information on closed and open image compositions. This research attempts to understand the psychological differences in viewing framed and unframed images and identify the crucial factors that affect the composition of photographic images. Results from the eye movement data found that closed text and photos displayed traits of the principle of closure, and that different compositions can significantly affect the fixation point and sightline distribution. Image compositions with property of closure tend to be more attractive, generating higher number of fixation and longer fixation duration, indicative of easier focus on the primary object in the picture frame and regulating the viewer’s field of view. Photographers try to make good use of frame composition to herd viewer focus as well as increase their interest, making their image composition as complete, concise, pleasant, and pleasurable to the eye, typically applied to landscape, still life or portrait photography. This study has the potential to become a reference that contributes to photography educational and visual communication.

Attentional Biases and Nonsuicidal Self-Injury Urges in Adolescents

Nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) is a significant clinical concern among adolescents. Exposure to NSSI-related content on social media platforms has been suspected to potentially act as a trigger for NSSI. To use free-viewing eye-tracking and dot-probe paradigms to examine attentional bias and psychophysiological responses to NSSI-related pictorial and textual stimuli in adolescents with and without a history of NSSI. From June 2022 to April 2023, adolescent participants in Vienna, Austria with and without a history of NSSI were exposed to NSSI-related stimuli in this nonrandomized controlled trial. Data were analyzed from December 2023 to January 2024. Exposure to NSSI-related stimuli. During both tasks, subjective arousal, NSSI urges, and autonomic nervous system activity were assessed. A total of 50 adolescents in 2 groups, 25 who engaged in NSSI (mean [SD] age 15.86 [1.14] years; 19 female participants [76%]) and 25 who did not (mean [SD] age 16.40 [1.71] years; 19 female participants [76%]) were included. Adolescents with a history of NSSI-but not those without a history of NSSI-showed a clear attentional bias toward NSSI-related images during eye-tracking, as indicated by increased initial fixations (500 ms stimulus presentation mean difference, 28.64%; 95% CI, 18.31%-38.98%; P < .001; 1000 ms stimulus presentation mean difference, 18.50%; 95% CI, 9.05%-27.95%; P < .001) and longer fixation durations (500 ms mean difference, 29.51 ms; 95% CI, 4.3-54.72 ms; P < .001; 1000 ms mean difference, 39.83 ms; 95% CI, 6.90-72.76 ms; P < .001), regardless of stimulus duration. This bias was associated with a heightened urge to engage in NSSI (d = 1.22; 95% CI, 0.69-1.73; P < .001), a trend not seen in adolescents without a history of NSSI. Similarly, in the dot-probe task, only the NSSI group showed an attentional bias toward NSSI images but not toward trauma images, emphasizing the specificity of their attentional bias. Physiological measures revealed no significant differences, suggesting that viewing NSSI images is not associated with increased autonomic arousal. Textual NSSI content did not provoke an attentional bias or heighten NSSI urges in either group. In this nonrandomized controlled trial of 50 adolescents, results highlighted a specific attentional bias toward NSSI-related pictorial stimuli in adolescents with a history of NSSI, particularly a difficulty in disengaging from NSSI images. These findings contribute to understanding maladaptive information processing in NSSI and suggest implications for clinical management and cognitive models addressing NSSI triggers. German Clinical Trials Register identifier: DRKS00025905.

Visually encoding orthogonal planar graph drawings as graph mazes: An eye tracking study

There are various styles to visually represent relational data in the form of node-link diagrams. In particular, for planar graphs we can find orthogonal node-link diagrams consisting of links bending only at ninety degrees a successful and prominent variant. One of the benefits of such drawings is the tracking of longer paths through a network with the eyes due to their limited number of link orientations, changes, and variations, but on the negative side the links can have arbitrary bending shapes. In this article we developed a novel way to visualize such orthogonal planar drawings by making use of mazes that look more natural to the human eye due to the street-like visual metaphor that many people are familiar with. Tracking paths is one of the major tasks in such graph visualizations, similar to orthogonal node-link diagrams, however, we argue that mazes are a more natural way to find paths. To get insights in the visual scanning behavior when reading graph mazes we conducted a comparative eye tracking study with 26 male versus female participants of different experience levels while also alternating between orthogonal node-link drawings and graph mazes as well as different graph size levels. The major result of this comparative study is that the participants can track paths in both representation styles, including a geodesic path tendency in their visual search behavior, but typically have a longer fixation duration at branching nodes and locations in the mazes that lead to opposite directions to the geodesic path tendency, maybe the viewers had to start a reorientation phase in their visual scanning behavior. We also found out that the size, that is the number of graph vertices has an impact on the visual scanning behavior for both orthogonal node-link diagrams as well as street-like maze representations, but for the mazes we found this impact to be less strong (in terms of the eye movement data metrics fixation durations and saccade lengths) compared to the node-link diagrams. To conclude the article, we discuss limitations and scalability issues of our approach. Moreover, we give an outlook and future work for possible extensions.

How interchange spacing effects drivers’ visual performance in high-density interchange groups − a naturalistic driving study

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of interchange spacing on the visual characteristics and visual load of drivers in the exit zone of the urban expressway. A naturalistic driving experiment was conducted in a high-density interchange group on the North Ring Expressway in Chongqing, China. Eye-movement data from 47 participants were collected to assess the pattern of visual performance, seven indicators were selected to characterize drivers’ visual characteristics, and the entropy weighting method was used to assess the drivers’ visual loads under different interchange spacing and driving zones. The results show that insufficient spacing of the interchange affects drivers’ visual behavior and increases their visual load level. The fixation duration for drivers is significantly affected by interchange spacing, with longer fixation duration in the diversion and ramp zones of small-spacing interchanging(SSI). The mean horizontal visual angle of drivers was mainly distributed in the middle of the field of view, and there was a tendency for the overall left side to be shifted under the conditions of SSI, and the mean vertical visual angle was mainly distributed in the nearer part in front of the lanes. In the ramp zone of SSI, the driver’s attention to the vehicle dashboard had a significant increase. In normal-spacing interchange(NSI), drivers’ horizontal saccade amplitude and speed were higher than those in SSI, and the difference was most significant in the diversion zone. Vertical saccade amplitude and speed of the driver were found to be significantly affected by interchange spacing only in the ramp zone. Drivers’ visual load had the highest correlation with pupil variation, and the visual load scores of drivers at SSI were 39.65% and 17.7% higher than at NSI in the diversion and ramp zones, respectively. This study provides valuable insights into the effects of the high-density interchange group on the visual performance of drivers on urban expressways, and the results provide a theoretical basis for the spacing control of interchanges.

Visual search for real-world scenes in patients with Alzheimer's disease and amnestic mild cognitive impairment.

Visual attention-related processes that underlie visual search behavior are impaired in both the early stages of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI), which is considered a risk factor for AD. Although traditional computer-based array tasks have been used to investigate visual search, information on the visual search patterns of AD and MCI patients in real-world environments is limited. The objective of this study was to evaluate the differences in visual search behaviors among individuals with AD, aMCI, and healthy controls (HCs) in real-world scenes. A total of 92 participants were enrolled, including 28 with AD, 32 with aMCI, and 32 HCs. During the visual search task, participants were instructed to look at a single target object amid distractors, and their eye movements were recorded. The results indicate that patients with AD made more fixations on distractors and fewer fixations on the target, compared to patients with aMCI and HC groups. Additionally, AD patients had longer fixation durations on distractors and spent less time looking at the target than both patients with aMCI and HCs. These findings suggest that visual search behavior is impaired in patients with AD and can be distinguished from aMCI and healthy individuals. For future studies, it is important to longitudinally monitor visual search behavior in the progression from aMCI to AD. Our study holds significance in elucidating the interplay between impairments in attention, visual processes, and other underlying cognitive processes, which contribute to the functional decline observed in individuals with AD and aMCI.

The impact of varied correlated color temperatures on visual comfort in museum exhibitions: integrating physiological and subjective assessments

ABSTRACT Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) significantly influences mood, comfort, and potentially overall health. However, its impact on visitors’ visual experience in museum design remains insufficiently explored. This study aims to investigate the effects of different CCT settings (3000 K, 4500 K, 6000 K) on visual comfort within a simulated museum space. Using 3D modeling and physiological recordings, 200 participants assessed visual comfort. Consistent findings support that a CCT of 4500 K provides the highest comfort level, aligning with the observed trend in eye gaze duration. Pupil diameter variability indicates that greater comfort is associated with higher CCT values. While differences in heart rate variability (HRV) were not statistically significant, there is a tendency for HRV to increase with longer fixation durations. These findings challenge literature advocating for lower CCT values in museum lighting, emphasizing the need to balance conservation and visitor experience. This study provides empirical evidence supporting the optimization of visual comfort in museum lighting design through a CCT value of 4500 K, offering valuable insights for practitioners. However, limitations include potential scene disturbance and the simulated environment. Future studies should diversify samples and explore a broader range of CCT values.

Influence of Complexity and Gestalt Principles on Aesthetic Preferences for Building Façades: An Eye Tracking Study.

Buildings are an integral part of our physical environment and have aesthetic significance with respect to the organizational integrity of architectural elements. While Gestalt principles are essential in design education, their relationship with architectural features remains understudied. The present study explored how Gestalt principles and complexity levels influence evaluations of building façades through the use of questionnaires and eye tracking. Twenty-four two-dimensional black and white façade drawings, manipulated using selected Gestalt principles (similarity and proximity) to achieve different levels of complexity (low, medium & high), were presented to 79 participants. The results suggested a negative linear relationship between aesthetic ratings and complexity levels across selected Gestalt principles. In addition, as expected, participants had the highest number of fixations, shortest fixation durations, and lowest aesthetic ratings for higher levels of complexity. Results involving Gestalt principles revealed that proximity-based designs received higher aesthetic ratings, demanded less time, elicited lower number of fixations, and resulted in shorter fixation durations. Conversely, similarity-based designs received lower aesthetic ratings, demanded more time, elicited higher number of fixations, and resulted in longer fixation durations. These findings offer insights into architectural aesthetic experiences and inform future research directions.

Empirical study on visual attention characteristics of basketball players of different levels during free-throw shooting

Background Visual attention is very important in basketball shooting, which is a prerequisite for forming good muscle proprioception and improving the shooting rate. The ability of visual instant searching information in the process of free throw plays an important role in the mobilization of free throw percentage. The aim of this study is to explore the fixation characteristics of athletes at different levels in the process of free throw shooting and to provide scientific basis for improving the free throw training of basketball players. Methods A total of 20 expert basketball players, 20 general basketball players and 20 novice basketball players participated in the experiment. Participants in the three groups wore eye tracker to make free throws, and analyzed the difference of visual attention among the three groups. Results The expert group had fewer number of fixations on the front, bottom, top-right, and top-right areas of the basket than the general and novice groups. The expert group also had smaller saccadic amplitudes than the other two groups. In terms of fixation duration, the expert group had longer fixation duration on the front and top areas of the basket than the other two groups, while in the top-right and bottom-right areas, the expert group had shorter fixation durations. The pupil dilation of the expert group was larger than that of the other two groups. Conclusion During the free throw process, the expert group had a clear attentional focus, concentrated fixation points, efficient information search, and precise processing. Profound basketball knowledge, proficient skills, and accumulated experience are the foundation of visual efficient search and precise processing during free throw attempts, and they are also the prerequisite for ensuring a high free throw shooting percentage.

Relations between pre-service teacher gaze, teacher attitude, and student ethnicity

In classrooms, ethnic minority students are often confronted with several disadvantages – such as lower academic achievement, more negative teacher attitudes, and less teacher recognition – which are all well examined in educational research. This study sought to understand if more negative teacher attitudes and lower teacher recognition are reflected in teacher gaze. Controlling for student behavior, do teachers look more on ethnic majority than on ethnic minority students? If teachers have a visual preference for ethnic majority students in their classrooms, then we would expect that teachers show a higher number of fixations, longer duration of fixations, and shorter times to first fixation on ethnic majority compared with ethnic minority students. To test this assumption, we designed an explanatory sequential mixed-method study with a sample of 83 pre-service teachers. First, pre-service teachers were invited to watch a video of a classroom situation while their eye movements were recorded. Second, after watching the video, they were asked to take written notes on (a) how they perceived the teacher in the video attended to ethnic minority students and (b) which own experiences they can relate to situations in the video. Finally, a standardized survey measured participants’ age, gender, ethnic background, explicit attitudes toward ethnic minority students, self-efficacy for teaching ethnic minority students, and stereotypes associated with the motivation of ethnic minority students. Results indicated that, in contrast to our hypothesis, pre-service teachers had longer fixation durations on ethnic minority compared with ethnic majority students. In addition, pre-service teachers’ explicit attitudes correlated positively with number (r = 0.26,p &amp;lt; 0.05) and duration (r = 0.31,p &amp;lt; 0.05) of fixations, suggesting that pre-service teachers with more positive attitudes toward ethnic minority students also looked more and longer on ethnic minority students. Furthermore, qualitative analyses indicated that pre-service teachers associated the disadvantaged situations for ethnic minority students with teachers’ stereotypes and student language difficulties; they also referred to their own ethnic minority when reflecting on specific situations in the video. We discuss these findings considering their significance for teacher education and professional development and their implications for further research on dealing with student diversity.

A computational modeling approach to investigating mind wandering-related adjustments to gaze behavior during scene viewing

Research on gaze control has long shown that increased visual-cognitive processing demands in scene viewing are associated with longer fixation durations. More recently, though, longer durations have also been linked to mind wandering, a perceptually decoupled state of attention marked by decreased visual-cognitive processing. Toward better understanding the relationship between fixation durations and visual-cognitive processing, we ran simulations using an established random-walk model for saccade timing and programming and assessed which model parameters best predicted modulations in fixation durations associated with mind wandering compared to attentive viewing. Mind wandering-related fixation durations were best described as an increase in the variability of the fixation-generating process, leading to more variable—sometimes very long—durations. In contrast, past research showed that increased processing demands increased the mean duration of the fixation-generating process. The findings thus illustrate that mind wandering and processing demands modulate fixation durations through different mechanisms in scene viewing. This suggests that processing demands cannot be inferred from changes in fixation durations without understanding the underlying mechanism by which these changes were generated.

Elevated and accelerated: Locus coeruleus activity and visual search abilities in autistic children

BackgroundAutistic individuals excel at visual search, however, the neural mechanism(s) underlying this advantage remain unclear. The locus coeruleus-norepinephrine (LC-NE) system, which plays a critical role in sensory perception and selective attention, has been shown to function in a persistently elevated state in individuals on the spectrum. However, the relationship between elevated tonic LC-NE activity and accelerated search in autism has not been explored. ObjectiveTo examine the relationship between visual search abilities and resting pupil diameter (an indirect measure of tonic LC-NE activation) in autistic and neurotypical children. MethodsParticipants were 24 school-aged autistic children and 24 age- and IQ-matched neurotypical children aged 8–15 years. Children completed two tasks: a resting eye-tracking task and a visual search paradigm. For the resting eye-tracking task, pupil diameter was monitored while participants fixated a central crosshair. For the visual search paradigm, participants were instructed to find the target (vertical line) embedded within an array of tilted (10°) distractor lines. The target was present on 50% of trials, and displayed within set sizes of 18, 24, and 36 items. ResultsConsistent with previous studies, autistic children had significantly larger resting pupil size and searched faster and more efficiently compared to their neurotypical peers. Eye-tracking findings revealed that accelerated search was associated with fewer, not shorter, fixations in the autism group. Autistic children also showed reduced leftward search bias. Larger resting pupil size, indicative of increased tonic activation of the LC-NE system, was associated with greater search efficiency, longer fixation durations, and reduced leftward bias. Finally, within both groups reduced leftward bias was associated with increased autism symptomatology. DiscussionTogether, these findings add to the existing body of research highlighting superior search in autism, suggest that elevated tonic LC-NE activity may contribute to more efficient search, and link non-social visual-spatial processing strengths to autism symptoms.

The effect of consumption goals on review helpfulness: Behavioral and eye-tracking research

Through utilizing behavioral methodology and integrating eye-tracking technology, we investigate the effect of consumption goals on review helpfulness during online shopping. Behaviorally, consumption goals (hedonic vs. utilitarian) can influence relative review (attribute-based vs. experience-based) helpfulness and this effect is mediated by review-goal congruity. Compared with those with hedonic consumption goals, consumers with utilitarian consumption goals perceive attribute-based reviews (vs. experience-based reviews) as more consistent with expectations, which makes the former of reviews more helpful for shopping decisions. In the study of eye-tracking, we found the attention-based cognitive process underlying the behavioral effect of consumption goals. Consumers have longer fixation duration and more fixation counts for attribute-based reviews when they have utilitarian consumption goals rather than hedonic consumption goals. These results show that by different types of consumption goals, consumers evaluate the review helpfulness and meantime allocate attentional resources. This research extends our current understanding of the relationship between consumption goals and online review helpfulness, and provides guidelines on the utilization of online reviews to facilitate the development of the marketing strategy for online retailers.

Establishing gaze markers of perceptual load during multi-target visual search

Highly-automated technologies are increasingly incorporated into existing systems, for instance in advanced car models. Although highly automated modes permit non-driving activities (e.g. internet browsing), drivers are expected to reassume control upon a ‘take over’ signal from the automation. To assess a person’s readiness for takeover, non-invasive eye tracking can indicate their attentive state based on properties of their gaze. Perceptual load is a well-established determinant of attention and perception, however, the effects of perceptual load on a person’s ability to respond to a takeover signal and the related gaze indicators are not yet known. Here we examined how load-induced attentional state affects detection of a takeover-signal proxy, as well as the gaze properties that change with attentional state, in an ongoing task with no overt behaviour beyond eye movements (responding by lingering the gaze). Participants performed a multi-target visual search of either low perceptual load (shape targets) or high perceptual load (targets were two separate conjunctions of colour and shape), while also detecting occasional auditory tones (the proxy takeover signal). Across two experiments, we found that high perceptual load was associated with poorer search performance, slower detection of cross-modal stimuli, and longer fixation durations, while saccade amplitude did not consistently change with load. Using machine learning, we were able to predict the load condition from fixation duration alone. These results suggest monitoring fixation duration may be useful in the design of systems to track users’ attentional states and predict impaired user responses to stimuli outside of the focus of attention.

Gaze patterns of dentists while evaluating bitewing radiographs

ObjectivesUnderstanding dentists’ gaze patterns on radiographs may allow to unravel sources of their limited accuracy and develop strategies to mitigate them. We conducted an eye tracking experiment to characterize dentists’ scanpaths and thus their gaze patterns when assessing bitewing radiographs to detect primary proximal carious lesions. Methods22 dentists assessed a median of nine bitewing images each, resulting in 170 datasets after excluding data with poor quality of gaze recording. Fixation was defined as an area of attentional focus related to visual stimuli. We calculated time to first fixation, fixation count, average fixation duration, and fixation frequency. Analyses were performed for the entire image and stratified by (1) presence of carious lesions and/or restorations and (2) lesion depth (E1/2: outer/inner enamel; D1–3: outer-inner third of dentin). We also examined the transitional nature of the dentists’ gaze. ResultsDentists had more fixations on teeth with lesions and/or restorations (median=138 [interquartile range=87, 204]) than teeth without them (32 [15, 66]), p<0.001. Notably, teeth with lesions had longer fixation durations (407 milliseconds [242, 591]) than those with restorations (289 milliseconds [216, 337]), p<0.001. Time to first fixation was longer for teeth with E1 lesions (17,128 milliseconds [8813, 21,540]) than lesions of other depths (p = 0.049). The highest number of fixations were on teeth with D2 lesions (43 [20, 51]) and lowest on teeth with E1 lesions (5 [1, 37]), p<0.001. Generally, a systematic tooth-by-tooth gaze pattern was observed. ConclusionsAs hypothesized, while visually inspecting bitewing radiographic images, dentists employed a heightened focus on certain image features/areas, relevant to the assigned task. Also, they generally examined the entire image in a systematic tooth-by-tooth pattern.

Analysis of the gaze fixations in performance of mental recall of the route on a city map. Effects of landmark type and gender

A psychophysiological eye-tracking experiment was conducted to investigate map navigation (including tasks of familiarization with the map, route memorization and recall of the route) as a function of landmark type (no landmarks, object landmarks, verbal landmarks, both types of landmarks) and gender. It was found that the number of fixations decreased and the fixation duration increased during recall compared to map familiarization and route memorization. The effect of task type on eye movements varied between route proximity areas. In the proximal areas, the number of fixations decreased during recall in comparison to memorization, while in the distal (“off route”) area the effect was opposite. These changes were pronounced in the male participants and did not reach statistical significance in the females. Men switched more frequently from the proximal to the distal area during memorization, thus forming a connection between the route and the remote environment. In contrast, women’s gaze was more often directed to the distal area during route recall. The map with object landmarks differed from the other maps in the lower number and longer fixation duration, indicating the advantage of object landmarks and, possibly, a preference for the object visual cognitive style among our participants.

An eye tracking study of the application of gestalt theory in photography.

Photography is an art form where integration of the human visual perception and psychological experiences result in aesthetic pleasure. This research utilizes eye tracking to explore the impact of the properties of Gestalt in photography on people's visual cognitive process in order to understand the psychological processes and patterns of photography appreciation. This study found that images with Gestalt qualities can significantly affect fixation, sightline distribution, and subjective evaluation of aesthetics and complexity. Closure composition images seem to make cognition simpler, resulting in the least number of fixation and saccades, longer fixation duration, and more concentrated sightline indicating stronger feeling of beauty, while images which portray similarity results in the greatest fixation and saccades, longest saccade duration, and greater scattering of sightline, indicating feelings of complexity and unsightliness. The results of this research are closely related to the theories of art and design, and have reference value for photography theory and application.

The Effects of Type and Form of Collaborative Robots in Manufacturing on Trustworthiness, Risk Perceived, and Acceptance

As one of the latest applications in the field of artificial intelligence, collaborative robots (cobots) are playing an increasingly important role in manufacturing. This study is aimed to ascertain the effects of the type and form of a collaborative robot in manufacturing on trustworthiness, risk perceived, and acceptance. A 2 (single-arm cobot/dual-arm cobot) * 2 (cobot with a screen/cobot without a screen) full factorial within-subject experiment was conducted by using eye-tracking metrics and subjective questionnaires. A total of 40 participants were recruited and all stimuli were played randomly. Results suggest both features are essential attributes with interactive effects in the process of viewing tasks. For single-arm cobots, cobots without a screen showed higher trustworthiness than those with a screen. Dual-arm cobots with a screen showed higher perceived risk than those without a screen. Furthermore, compared to the cobots without a screen, cobots with a screen evidenced more fixation counts and longer fixation duration, which means more attention resources and greater cognitive effort were required. The same results were also found in dual-arm cobots. This study contributes to the extant literature on cobot design and training by emphasizing the effect of cobot form and type in particular.

Using eye tracking to examine expert-novice differences during simulated surgical training: A case study

Eye tracking data can serve as a unique metric for comparing expert-novice differences by providing insights into attentional processes, which can lead to timely intervention and better instruction. In this study, we used eye tracking technology to record and analyze the eye movements of experts and novices conducting a surgical procedure in a simulation environment. Specifically, we compared the differences in the eye movement parameters (i.e., average fixation, saccade, and blink durations), the distribution of visual attention, and the shift of visual focus between experts and novices across three task phases. We found that experts had longer fixation durations, shorter saccade durations, and more gaze points on task-relevant areas. The visual attention of novices was more diffuse than experts. Moreover, task complexity was found to moderate the size of expert-novice differences in their eye movements. Findings from this study inform the assessment of professional competency in the medicine domain. This study also helps to advance the use of eye tracking as a methodology for educational research.