Long-term Operation Research Articles

Transmissive-to-Black Electrochromic Switching of Pendant Viologen Polymer with Superior Long-Term Operation Stability

Transmissive-to-Black Electrochromic Switching of Pendant Viologen Polymer with Superior Long-Term Operation Stability

Low carbon collaborative planning of integrated hydrogen-ammonia system and power distribution network

The conversion of renewable energy into chemical energy carriers, such as ammonia, enhances the accommodation of renewable energy for power distribution networks (PDN) and supports the decarbonization for ammonia production systems (APS). This paper addresses the integration of PDN with APS through a collaborative planning considering a carbon emission flow (CEF) model. A collaborative planning model with carbon emissions constraints is designed, and a sensitivity analysis is performed to evaluate the impact of varying renewable energy costs on the system. To further reduce carbon emissions from green ammonia production and stabilize renewable energy volatility, a nodal CEF model that incorporates energy storage systems (ESS), wind turbines (WT), and photovoltaics (PV) is proposed. The economic feasibility of the proposed model is verified via comprehensive experiments. Numerical results show that collaborative scheduling reduces both costs and carbon emissions in PDN and APS. Implementing a carbon tax encourages the transition from grey to blue ammonia production, while a decrease in renewable energy costs further promotes the shift from blue to green ammonia. Besides this, the analysis indicates that integrating long-term operation of WT and PV, together with low-cost renewable electricity and ESS, boosts the economic efficiency of the green ammonia production system.

Nitrogen-Rich Covalent Organic Frameworks Composited High-Temperature Proton Exchange Membranes with Ultralow Volume Expansion and Reduced Phosphoric Acid Leakage.

Phosphoric acid (PA) leakage and volume expansion are critical factors limiting long-term stable operation of PA-doped polybenzimidazole (PBI) for high-temperature proton exchange membrane fuel cells. Enhancing the interaction between the polymer matrix and PA provides an effective way to minimize PA loss and inhibit excessive membrane swelling. The covalent organic frameworks (COFs) are helpful in improving the performance of PA-PBI membranes due to the robust frameworks, adjustable structures, and good compatibility with polymers. Here, in this work, we synthesized porous COFs named TTA-DFP containing triazine rings and pyridine groups at room temperature for as short as 2 h without oxygen isolation. TTA-DFP was then blended with commercial poly[2,2'-(p-oxidiphenylene)-5,5'-benzimidazole] (OPBI) to prepare composite membranes. The abundant alkaline N sites in TTA-DFP exhibit strong interactions with PA and OPBI, which not only provide more proton transport pathways to promote proton conduction but also immobilize PA in acidophilic micropores to reduce PA leakage. The composite membranes exhibit a much lower volume swelling ratio than that of the OPBI membrane. The PA retention of the composite membrane after 120 h of treatment at 80 °C and 40% relative humidity can reach as high as 84.6%. Particularly, the proton conductivity of the composite membrane doped with 15 wt% TTA-DFP achieves 0.112 S cm-1 at 180 °C without humidification with a swelling ratio of 24.1%. In addition, it has an optimal peak power density of 824.4 mW cm-2 at 180 °C, which is 1.7 times that of the OPBI membrane. The stability of the composite membrane is much better than that of OPBI at a current density of 0.3 A cm-2 at 140 °C for 120 h.

Research on the characteristics of photovoltaic-driven refrigerated warehouse with ice storage in field under weather and load variation

The field photovoltaic refrigerated warehouse works well in pre-cooling and refrigerating fruits and vegetables in remote areas. Thus, it is crucial to ensure its long-term stable operation, particularly under the dual challenges of fluctuating solar energy supply and the unstable energy consumption required for load variation. This paper investigates the operational characteristics of a 1.5-ton photovoltaic-driven refrigerated warehouse with ice storage under varying loads and weather conditions. Results indicate that the average cooling time of the material was 26 h, under the condition of continuous material inflow into the warehouse. Additionally, 26 kg of ice were produced per day per kilowatt of solar panel capacity. Energy requirements of the device for 1.1 nights match its daily ice production. Furthermore, a maximum COP of 0.34 was achieved under photovoltaic drive. The internal temperature of the load was effectively maintained within the range of 3–4 °C, even during consecutive overcast and rainy weather. Based on this, an 8-ton field photovoltaic-driven refrigerated warehouse with ice storage was constructed. These studies provide an effective alternative refrigeration solution for remote regions, addressing their cooling needs efficiently.

Research on Energy-Saving Control Strategies for Single-Effect Absorption Refrigeration Systems

The automatic control device is a critical component of absorption refrigeration systems. Its functional enhancement can reduce operating costs, improve energy efficiency, and ensure long-term stable unit operation. Given that absorption refrigeration systems operate under various dynamic conditions, the rational design of control strategies is particularly important. This study analyzes the influence of changes in the cooling water and heat source water flow rates on the outlet temperature of chilled water in the unit based on the open-loop response characteristics of absorption refrigeration systems. It proposes a dual-loop energy-saving control strategy for single-effect hot water lithium bromide absorption refrigeration systems based on the setpoint comprehensive optimization algorithm. Considering the multiple variables, strong coupling, large inertia, long time delay, and nonlinear characteristics of absorption refrigeration systems, as well as the difficulties in modeling these systems, this study applies a model-free adaptive control algorithm to the system’s control. It derives both SISO and MIMO model-free control algorithms with time-delay components. Through simulations comparing MFAC, improved MFAC, and traditional PID control, the dual-loop energy-saving control strategy is demonstrated to effectively reduce system heat consumption by approximately 20%, decrease power consumption by about 10%, and enhance the system’s SCOP by approximately 19.3%.

A full-scale CFD model of scavenge air inlet temperature on two-stroke marine diesel engine combustion and exhaust emission characteristics

Most ships in the maritime transport sector are equipped with large two-stroke marine diesel engines in their propulsion systems. Therefore, ensuring stable and long-term operation of these engines is crucial to maintaining freight transportation. The design of the ship's machinery, particularly the diesel engine, is a crucial step in achieving this goal. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) tools can be used to achieve this goal. This article presents a full-scale CFD study on the effect of different scavenge air inlet temperatures (300, 312, 330 and 340 K) on the combustion process and generation of exhaust emissions in a two-stroke marine diesel engine using ANSYS Forte software. Regarding the cylinder pressure, the presented model agrees well with experimental data. The maximum cylinder pressure decreases as the scavenge air inlet temperature increases, whereas the maximum cylinder temperature increases as the scavenge air inlet temperature increases. The maximum NOX, CO and UHC emission values are calculated to be 2256.5, 20375.8 and 3743.9 ppm, respectively, at a scavenge air inlet temperature of 340 K. Due to the higher combustion temperature caused by the increasing scavenge air inlet temperature, it is observed that the exhaust emission levels increase.

Multiphysics analysis of mechanical responses in micro-reactors under varied operating conditions

Micro-reactors are a promising alternative for power production applications where traditional methods may not be feasible (e.g., space missions). Their design requires critical selection of materials, especially for moderator and fuel, to ensure long-term operation and optimal performance. This research focuses on developing computational analysis models for micro-reactors, aiming to explore their structural behavior under thermal and mechanical loadings. The micro-reactor model is based on the Zero Energy Breeder Reactor Assembly (Zebra) Kilowatt (kW) reactor design conceptualized at Los Alamos National Laboratory. This study investigates the thermal and mechanical responses of three distinct reactor models considering factors, such as boundary conditions, material properties, and thermal-mechanical loading. In this study, Beryllium Oxide (BeO), Beryllium (Be), Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3), and Magnesium Oxide (MgO) are chosen as materials for the reflector. Yttrium Hydride (YH) and Zirconium Hydride (ZH) are chosen as moderators. Uranium Nitride (UN) and Uranium Molybdenum (UMo) are chosen as reactor fuel materials. The thermal analysis predicts the deformation due to the thermal expansion within the reactor under steady operating conditions at 25 kWth, mimicking the maximum rated power of the Zebra kW design. The mechanical study simulates the system's response to forced vibration loads applied along the cooling channels, matching the natural frequency of the system. The results from both analyses show that Beryllium Oxide, Yttrium Hydride, and Uranium Nitride demonstrate the most optimal stress distribution in the system compared to other configurations investigated here. The results of this study can be developed into datasets to facilitate future machine learning studies, enabling the prediction of mechanical and thermal responses for micro-reactors.

Research on the thermal balance of a novel independent heat extraction-release double helix energy pile in long-term operation

Ground source heat pump buried pipes offer potential in civil defense due to their concealment and reliability, yet face thermal imbalance issues. This paper adopts a double helix energy pile with independent heat extraction-release capacity and develops an experiment to compare the performance of independent operation versus joint operation. Furthermore, a verified 2D model facilitated extensive simulations for long-term thermal balance, integrating refrigeration load, principles of water use in an underground engineering, and heat pump model. Comparative experiments show that joint operation can effectively alleviate soil heat accumulation by more than 20%. Extended simulations reveal that as accumulated heat is removed, the unit's performance is improved, and soil heat accumulation can boost heat extraction. However, under domestic water heat extraction, the heat-extracting pipe shows low flow rates, leading to thermal accumulation, necessitating the use of water for equipment or additional feed water to improve heat extraction. Compared to uniform enhancement heat extraction, centralized enhanced heat extraction boosts overall heat extraction capacity by 35.1%, which can more effectively mitigate thermal imbalances and improve unit performance, and achieving thermal balance in the geotechnical area requires an enhanced extraction flow rate above 10.5 L/h, with over 56 m3 of water passing through the heat-extracting pipe.

Environmental noise monitoring using distributed hierarchical wireless acoustic sensor network

Acoustic noise pollution is one of many problems people face as cities grow. Long-term noise exposure can result in a series of physical and mental health diseases that are highly harmful to foetuses and newborns. Hence, many IoT-based wireless sensor network systems have been proposed for automated monitoring for long-term operation. However, these systems suffer from weaknesses in functionality, power consumption, costs, and scalability, which hinder large-scale deployment. In this study, we propose a distributed hierarchical wireless acoustic sensor network for environmental noise monitoring to do sound classification and A-weighted sound-pressure-level measurement to address the shortcomings of existing systems. A series of tests and comparisons are performed in diagnosing the performance with respect to recording continuity, packet loss, recording quality, accuracy on A-weighted sound pressure level calculations, and costs. Results show that this proposed network structure is feasible as a part of hardware implementation in a large-scale, low-cost, and high-scalable environmental noise monitoring system to classify sound.

GCP: A multi-strategy improved wireless sensor network model for environmental monitoring

Nowadays, smart environmental monitoring devices are widely used in various fields, and one of the most representative tools is the wireless sensor network (WSN). WSNs are easy to deploy and provide real-time information feedback, which is very suitable for environmental monitoring. As we all know, the environmental monitoring network because of the special nature of its work requirements, the need for uninterrupted and real-time transmission of monitoring data, which leads to energy consumption is extremely large, and this cannot meet the needs of its long-term work. Existing traditional routing has problems such as unscientific cluster head election and high redundancy in data transmission, which usually lead to a large amount of energy consumption, which is not conducive to the long-term stable operation of sensor networks. In this paper, we improve the traditional routing protocol and design a cluster head election method based on the genetic algorithm, which proposes a new fitness function in terms of energy, distance, and the number of nodes in the cluster, and performs the selection of cluster head nodes based on this method. In addition, we propose a new grey prediction model, which can realize the real-time update of data queues, and optimize the data transmission process of traditional WSNs based on this prediction model to reduce the amount of intra-cluster data transmission. Combining these improvements, a grey cluster prediction (GCP) model is proposed, and the performance of the model is tested based on real mine and soil data sets. The simulation results show that the model significantly reduces energy loss and extends the network life cycle while ensuring the integrity of data transmission. It can also meet the requirements of long-term stable operation of environmental monitoring equipment.

Impact of variable hydrostatic pressure and intermittent operation on filtration performance and biofouling layer in gravity-driven membrane system for practical decentralized water supply

The gravity-driven membrane (GDM) systems offer a promising solution for decentralized drinking water supply due to its low maintenance and energy consumption. However, research on the practical application of GDM under variable hydrostatic pressure (variable load) and intermittent operation conditions, particularly in response to high-turbidity water, remains limited. This study investigates the long-term performance and characteristics of the biofouling layer of GDM under ultra-low variable hydrostatic pressure (20–60 mbar) and intermittent operation (8–12 h) conditions in practical decentralized water supply. The results indicate that the membrane flux (1.9–6.0 L∙m−2∙h−1, LMH) remained relatively stable despite variations in gravity-driven pressure (ΔP). Long-term operation of GDM can stably remove turbidity and potential pathogens from raw water. The total protein/polysaccharide ratios of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) in the biofouling layer were below 0.50, reducing contaminant adhesion on the membrane surface. The 0.2–0.4 μm transparent exopolymer particles (TEP) fraction might be crucial for biofouling layer formation. The key species, belong to Proteobacteria and Patescibacteria, significantly alleviated membrane fouling by degrading polysaccharide and proteins in biofouling layer. Comammox Nitrospira were significantly enriched, contributing to efficient nitrification. GDM with variable load maintained a stable flux of 2.2–5.2 LMH under high-turbidity water conditions (300–1200 NTU), and simple forward flushing combined with sludge discharge can quickly restore ΔP. Overall, the variable load GDM system effectively manages membrane fouling and maintains stable filtration performance through the combined effects of variable load and intermittent operation, ensuring long-term and low-maintenance operation for decentralized water supply.

Toward integrated dam assessment: evaluating multi-dimensional impacts of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam on Sudan

Abstract The Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) on the Nile is expected to influence many ecosystem services, such as flood regulation, hydro-electricity production, food supply, and habitat provision, among others. Understanding these impacts (positive and negative) requires a comprehensive evaluation framework. This study develops and applies an integrated simulation framework for assessing the impacts of the GERD on Sudan, focusing on the simultaneous economywide effects of riverine flood hazards, irrigation water supply, hydropower generation, and floodplain-dependent industries, namely traditional fired clay brick production. The simulation framework incorporates three models: a river infrastructure system model, a flood model, and a Computable General Equilibrium Model. Results indicate positive impacts for hydropower generation and flood control, marginal benefits for water supply to existing irrigation, and negative consequences for brick production and the construction sector. Assuming that the GERD starts its long-term operation in 2025, we find an overall positive economic impact on Sudan’s Gross Domestic Product in 2025, with an increase of up to just over 0.1%, subject to river flow conditions. Recognizing the differences in impacts across sectors and income groups, the study emphasizes the need for interventions that ameliorate negative effects. While the study captures several impacts, other effects on the environment, recession agriculture, and soil fertility require further investigation. Still, our findings underscore the importance of adopting an integrated simulation approach to dam evaluation, acknowledging the interconnected nature of water and related sectors in national economies.

Rapid electrodeposition synthesis of partially phosphorylated cobalt iron phosphate for application in seawater overall electrolysis

To obtain hydrogen energy from seawater, it is of utmost importance to design an efficient bifunctional electrocatalyst that can be produced on a large scale and in a rapid manner. In this work, iron cobalt phosphate (CoFe-EP/NF) for long-term efficient and stable seawater electrolysis were rapidly synthesized by a simple electrodeposition. The study showed that metal phosphides/phosphates provided additional active sites for the catalysts for hydrogen evolution reaction (HER, 160 mV at 100 mA/cm2) and oxygen evolution reaction (OER, 266 mV at 100 mA/cm2), in alkaline seawater electrolyte (1 M KOH + seawater), respectively. Notably, the presence of phosphate groups facilitates the transformation of cobalt-iron metal phosphates into the truly reactive substance CoOOH, which improves the OER kinetics. In addition, the phosphate layer formed after catalyst activation avoids the occurrence of chlorine evolution reaction (CER) by shielding the adsorption of Cl−, thus enhancing the corrosion resistance and enabling long-term stable operation in seawater. The two-electrode overall seawater electrolysis easily reaches 100 mA/cm2 at 1.68 V and exhibit a long-term durability of more than 100 h. This study offers a viable approach for the synthesis of electrocatalysts with high activity and corrosion resistance, which is vital for the practical realization of large-scale seawater electrolysis.

Analysis and optimization of self-propelled performance of wave-driven vehicle hydrofoil under high sea-level condition

The wave-driven vehicle is a surface vehicle powered by capturing wave energy, which is required to face harsh sea conditions when performing tasks in parts of the ocean. However, wave-driven vehicles are usually small in size, and their seakeeping and speed are generally poor in high sea conditions. Wave driven vehicles are usually equipped with rigid connected hydrofoils to capture wave energy, which can provide power for wave driven vehicles and enhance seakeeping. Aiming at the long-term survival and operation requirements of wave-driven vehicle under high sea conditions, this paper studies the effect of high sea conditions launching wing on the self- propelled performance of wave-driven vehicle. After installing rigid connected hydrofoils on wave-driven vehicles, the structural parameters of the hydrofoils are changed, and the kinematic and dynamic responses of wave-driven vehicles at 0–90 ° wave encounter Angle are numerically simulated based on CFD method. The effects of underwater wing depth, hydrofoil spacing and hydrofoil span length on the self- propelled performance of wave-driven vehicles are analyzed. Based on this, the structural parameters of rigidly connected hydrofoils are optimized, which improves the seakeeping and rapidity of wave-driven vehicles in high sea conditions.

Structural Plastic Damage Warning and Real-Time Sensing System Based on Cointegration Theory.

Structural damage can affect the long-term operation of equipment. Real-time damage warning for structures can effectively avoid accidents caused by structural damage. In this paper, a real-time warning method of structural plastic damage based on the cointegration theory is proposed. This method calculates the cointegration relationship between the strain signals at different measuring points, and the stability of the strain signal relationships is also evaluated. The problem of inaccurate detection caused by the error of strain measurement and environmental influence can be eliminated by the comprehensive judgment of strain between asymmetrical measuring points. A real-time damage sensing system is developed in this paper. In order to improve the real-time and practicability of the system, this paper proposes and determines the residual warning coefficient by analyzing the proportion of the strain residuals exceeding the residual threshold. The research on this sensing system has certain value for the engineering application of damage monitoring methods.

High-speed laser cladding (Fe,Cu)-dopped Ni-Co protective coatings for SOFC MICs: From long-term oxidation behavior to mechanical stability

The long-term operation of intermediate temperature-solid oxide fuel cells (IT-SOFCs) could be significantly influenced by the stability of the interconnect itself, especially, its oxidation resistance under the cathode environment. To effectively prevent Cr-volatilization and improve the interconnector performance, application of highly dense and stable protective coatings over the interconnector is indispensable. In this work, Ni-Co-based alloy protective coatings doped with Fe and Cu were applied onto the 441 interconnector via a novel high-speed laser cladding technology. The microstructure evolution, phase composition, oxidation resistance, electrical conductivity and mechanical properties of the coated steels were investigated at different oxidation stages at 800 °C. It was found that the Ni33.8Co34Fe32.2-coated steel shows the best oxidation resistance and electrical properties. The oxidation rate (kp) and ASR of Ni33.8Co34Fe32.2-coated steel is respectively 4.44 × 10−13 g2 cm−4 s−1 and 25.55 mΩ cm2, significantly lower than the uncoated steel and Ni44.6Co44.7Cu10.7-coated steel at the end of 1000-h test cycle. The resultant conductivity of the Ni44.6Co44.7Cu10.7 and Ni33.8Co34Fe32.2-coated steels is approximately 7.8 and 4.1 S cm−1, respectively, which could meet the requirement for SOFC stacks. In addition, the nano-hardness of the Ni33.8Co34Fe32.2 and Ni44.6Co44.7Cu10.7-coated steels was found to be 8.3 GPa and 8.8 GPa, respectively, through nanoindentation testing. The improved surface hardness is attributed to grain refinement and increased oxide content on the coating surface. The results indicated that the Ni-Co-based alloy coatings effectively improved the long-term stability and mechanical property of the 441 interconnector under the SOFC cathode environment.

A voltage-decoupled Zn-Br2 flow battery for large-scale energy storage

The flow battery represents a highly promising energy storage technology for the large-scale utilization of environmentally friendly renewable energy sources. However, the increasing discharge power of rechargeable battery results in a higher charge voltage due to its coupling relationship in charge-discharge processes, intensifying the burden of renewable energy power systems. Herein, we proposed a voltage-decoupled Na+-conducting Zn-Br2 flow battery (Ud-Na-ZBFB). Within a pH-regulation strategy, both neutral Zn/Zn2+ and alkaline Zn/Zn(OH)42− negative redox couples are integrated into one device, so as to increase discharge voltage a 0.5 V theoretical increase while remains a low charge voltage. The proof-of-concept Ud-Na-ZBFB demonstrates an unprecedented voltage characteristic, achieving a discharge voltage of up to 2.18 V while maintaining a remarkably low charge voltage of 1.78 V at a current density of 20 mA cm−2. Benefiting from the high discharge voltage, the peak power density of Ud-Na-ZBFB reaches 580 mW cm−2, nearly twice higher than the traditional ZBFB. Besides, the Ud-Na-ZBFB cycling operates for 45 h with excellent stability and resilience. With the “cycle-to-stage” operational mode, battery state of Ud-Na-ZBFB can be completely recovered after a long-term operation stage with several cycles, which electrolyte utilization efficiency of one stage is up to 41 %. This work offers a brand-new utilization pattern for high-power rechargeable battery that possesses a great potential in energy storage application scenes.

Synthesis of carbon dots with tailored heteroatomic structure for achieving ultrahigh effectiveness in persulfate activation

Carbon dots (CDs) are normally feature with zero-dimensional structure, excellent solubility, good biosafety, and exceptional photoelectronic properties, thus, awakening the homogeneous-like photocatalytic potency of CDs in peroxymonosulfate (PMS) activation can afford new idea for water body remediation. Herein, we presented a facile nitrogen and sulfur co-doping strategy for the development of high-performance CDs-based photocatalysts. Through the deep investigation on the structure-activity relationship, we proposed that the incorporated pyridinic N within CDs structure could serve as efficient Lewis basic sites for PMS confinement. Importantly, the co-existence of oxidized sulfur groups and specific nitrogen speciation (pyridine N and pyrrolic N) induced unique “push-pull” effect on the photogenerated carriers within the surface state of S,N co-doped CDs. The unique synergy sites and surface hydrophilic nature conferred the CDs exceptional photocatalytic effectiveness, presenting a remarkable PMS consumption ratio of 7.62 per gram of the CDs photocatalyst within just 20 min. Profited from the improved kinetics of interfacial reactions, the CDs-photocatalyzed oxidation system that consisted largely of sulfate radicals can completely degrade rhodamine B within 12.5 min, and hold great potential in long-term operation without needing to regenerate CDs catalyst.

Different bioaugmentation regimes that mitigate ammonium/salt inhibition in repeated batch anaerobic digestion: Generic converging trend of microbial communities

Bioaugmentation regimes (i.e., dosage, repetition, and timing) in AD must be optimized to ensure their effectiveness. Although previous studies have investigated these aspects, most have focused exclusively on short-term effects, with some reporting conflicting conclusions. Here, AD experiments of three consecutive repeated batches were conducted to determine the effect of bioaugmentation regimes under ammonium/salt inhibition conditions. A positive correlation between reactor performance and inoculum dosage was confirmed in the first batch, which diminished in subsequent batches for both inhibitors. Moreover, a diminishing marginal effect was observed with repeated inoculum introduction. While the bacterial community largely influenced the reactor performance, the archaeal community exhibited only a minor impact. Prediction of the key enzyme abundances suggested an overall decline in different AD steps. Overall, repeated batch experiments revealed that a homogeneous bacterial community deteriorated the AD process during long-term operation. Thus, a balanced bacterial community is key for efficient methane production.

Electrochemical Nitrate Reduction to Ammonia on AuCu Single-atom Alloy Aerogels under Wide Potential Window.

Electrocatalytic nitrate reduction to ammonia (NO3RR) is very attractive for nitrate removal and ammonia production in industrial processes. However, the nitrate reduction reaction is characterized by intense hydrogen competition at strong reduction potentials, which greatly limits the Faraday efficiency at strong reduction potentials. Herein, we reported an AuxCu single-atom alloy aerogels (AuxCu SAAs) with three-dimensional network structure with significant nitrate reduction performance of Faraday efficiency (FE) higher than 90% over a wide potential range (0 ~ -1 VRHE). The FE of the catalyst was close to 100% at a high reduction potential of -0.8 VRHE, accompanying with NH3 yield reaching 6.21 mmol h-1 cm-2. More importantly, the catalyst maintained a long-term operation over 400 h at 400 mA cm-2 for the NO3RR using a continuous flow system in a H-cell. Experimental and theoretical analysis demonstrate that the catalyst can lower the energy barrier for the hydrogenation reaction of *NO2, leading to a rapid consumption of the generated *H, facilitate the hydrogenation process of NO3RR, and inhibit the competitive HER at high overpotentials, which efficiently promotes the nitrate reduction reaction, especially in industrial applications.