Long-term English Learners Research Articles

A raciolinguistic analysis of the impact of the English Language Proficiency Act on students labeled long-term English learners in Colorado

Abstract Students who receive English Language Development (ELD) services for seven or more years are labeled as “Long Term English Learners” or LTELs. The Every Student Succeeds Act or ESSA requires that states track and report on this group of students, which has shown that the number of students labeled as LTEL is growing across the United States. This label implies that this grouping of students is taking longer to learn the English language than other students, an implication that is damaging and carries along a stigma, as previous research has shown. This qualitative interview study examined the experiences of students who were formerly labeled LTELs under the English Language Proficiency Act (ELPA) in Colorado. The major findings included widespread uncertainty for students regarding different aspects of the ELPA, students being stuck in English Language Development services, and students developing deficit perceptions of their fluency. The long-term objective is to inform policymakers to revise the ELPA policy to better support this unique population of students. Keywords: LTEL, English Language Proficiency Act, Language Policy, Multilingual Students, Raciolinguistic ideologies.

Accountability for long-term English learners

The English learner (EL) population has grown by 35% in the last 20 years. However, in addition to new students being identified as ELs, the EL subgroup is being inflated by students who are not being reclassified within a reasonable and developmentally appropriate timeframe. These students, often labeled long term ELs (LTELs), are a product of chronic systemic failures that have barred these students from an equitable education. Leslie Villegas provides an overview of the LTEL phenomenon and offers recommendations for creating a more even picture of the problem.

Social Justice Challenges of “Teaching” Languages

Abstract This essay explores the challenges to linguistic justice resulting from widely held negative perspectives on the English of young Latinx bi/multilinguals and from common misunderstandings of individuals who use resources from two communicative systems in their everyday lives. I highlight the effects of these misunderstandings on Long-Term English Learners as they engage with the formal teaching of English. I specifically problematize language instruction as it takes place in classrooms and the impact of the curricularization of language as it is experienced by minoritized students who “study” language qua language in instructed settings.

Long-Term English Learners with Learning Disabilities: Is Dual Identification Associated with High School Absenteeism?

Long-Term English Learners with Learning Disabilities: Is Dual Identification Associated with High School Absenteeism?

Standardized Tests and Within‐Group Segregation: The Not‐So‐Optimal ESL Classroom for Long‐Term English Learners

AbstractReclassification is a critical threshold when English Learners (ELs) exit specialized language services and access all‐English mainstream classrooms. Despite the mandates of the Every Student Succeeds Act, reclassification rates and time remain a pressing problem. A product of this malfunctioning system has been long‐term ELs (LTELs). This article focuses on the social consequences of language assessment and attends to the stories of three LTELs at a rural high school in the southeastern United States. It examines the impact of ability‐grouping through standardized tests on the social fabric of an English as a Second Language (ESL) classroom. Data come from semi‐structured personal interviews and observations in ESL and content‐area classes. The thematic narrative analysis points to a reclassification system that functions primarily based on test scores. State‐mandated tests silence LTELs by classifying them in the same category with newcomer ELs. This system targets the standardization of their identities by disregarding the diversity within the ELs in terms of instructional needs and social, linguistic, academic, and cultural resources. These tests pose an insuperable social conflict and tension between the LTELs and newcomer ELs. To this end, I claim that state‐mandated tests are hegemonic devices that might cause hierarchies in ESL classrooms and within‐group segregation of ELs. The social consequences of testing need to be investigated in‐depth to revamp the educational landscape for LTELs.

Long-term English learners’ mathematics course trajectories: downstream consequences of early remediation on college preparation

ABSTRACT We investigated how high school mathematics course placement contributes to inequalities in college preparation for students categorized as “English Learners” (ELs), especially “long-term” English Learners (LTELs). We devised a base-2 enumeration approach that allowed us to process complex transcript data from one school district and enumerate the thousands of possible trajectories (combinations) of mathematics courses taken by students during high school. We observed significant disparities in college preparation across students by English proficiency designation. In comparison to English Only (EO) students, LTELs were funneled into fewer trajectories that predominantly included lower level mathematics courses. We found that enrollment into remedial mathematics courses in Grade 9 appears to restrict access to advanced courses, with grave consequences for Grade 12 college preparation.

Supporting Long-Term English Learners: Assessment, Reclassification, and Educational Opportunities

Supporting Long-Term English Learners: Assessment, Reclassification, and Educational Opportunities

How Long-Term English Learners Perform on an English Language Proficiency Assessment During Grades 2 through 5: An Examination of Assessment Tasks and Features

Using two states’ longitudinal data, this study tracked long-term English learner (LTEL) students’ performance on an annual English language proficiency (ELP) assessment (the ELPA21) from their pre-LTEL period. We followed English learner (EL) students who were initially classified as EL students in Kindergarten or in Grade 1 until they reached Grade 5. We defined LTEL students as EL students who have not achieved English language proficiency after five years of their initial EL classification. We examined LTEL students’ overall-, domain-, task-, and item-level performance in the ELPA21 and compared how their performances differed from non-LTEL students. We also identified features of items in the Grades 2 through 5 ELPA21 that were particularly challenging for LTEL students. LTEL students showed significantly lower proficiency and slower development in reading and writing than in listening and speaking domains in Grades 2 through 5, suggesting the need for strengthening elementary EL services and targeting instruction for EL students at risk of becoming LTEL students. In addition, findings suggest variability of task types and item features across grade levels that presented more challenges for LTEL students. The findings have implications for EL policies, programs, and instruction, especially for elementary EL students at risk of becoming LTEL students.

“Every” Student Succeeds? Academic Trends at the Intersection of (Long-Term) English Learner and IEP Status

In this study, we describe long-term trends in students’ academic performance, documenting persistent and systematic disparities in academic outcomes across several student subgroups. We leverage administrative data from longitudinal student records to examine academic outcomes for English learners (ELs), students with Individualized Education Plans (IEPs), and dual-identified students (ELs with IEPs) enrolled in one U.S. state within the last decade, spanning the years 2009 to 2019. Adopting a lens of intersectionality and using descriptive statistics in a cohort-sequential design, we examine reclassification rates that shape the long-term EL (LTEL) subgroup. Grouping students based on whether they were (ever) identified as an EL or as having a disability, we also report on academic content (Reading/ELA and Mathematics) proficiency rates across time for these subgroups. Summarizing the records of over half a million students starting school across six years (2009–2014) and four elementary grades (K-3) nested in 24 independent cohorts, our findings show that, on average, dual-identified students’ rates of LTEL identification are almost twice that of ELs without disabilities, and that only a very small proportion of dual-identified students achieve proficiency in academic content. Our results raise questions and concerns regarding the adequacy and alignment of federal, state, district, and school-level policies and resources that govern the education of English learners, students with disabilities, and especially dual-identified students.

Individualized Language Plans: A Potential Tool for Collaboration to Support Multilingual Students

Prior research has documented how current policies and practices reinforce deficit perspectives of multilingual students at the secondary level, particularly students who have been labeled as long-term English learners. At the same time, scholars have argued for a need to collect detailed, individualized information about multilingual students’ linguistic, academic, and cultural assets and design supports for students based on this information. However, few concrete examples exist of ways that schools and districts have implemented these ideas at a systemic level. Building from prior research about who decides the educational services youth receive and drawing from theory about aesthetic care, authentic care, and reciprocal dialogue, we describe and analyze a tool two rural California school districts developed to foster collaboration in support of students considered long-term English learners: Individualized Language Plans (ILPs). Our analysis is based on three years of data collection, including interviews with district administrators and teachers involved in the design and implementation of ILPs, as well as observations of meetings where ILPs were created. We discuss implications for research, policy, and practice.

Long-term English Learners: Untangling Language Acquisition and Learning Disabilities

AbstractStudents who have remained classified as English Learners (ELs) for more than six years are often labeled “Long-term English Learners” (LTELs). The present study examined the English Language Development (ELD) test scores and demographic information in a group of 560 students identified as LTELs. Despite assumptions that these students are still learning English, results showed many students who are labeled LTELs exhibited advanced English skills, especially on measures of expressive and receptive oral language (i.e., speaking and listening subtests). At the same time, ELD assessments showed many of these students struggled with literacy skills, especially reading. Perhaps due to these overlapping circumstances, we found many LTELs were also identified with learning disabilities. Based on these findings, we explored the impact of restricting domains needed for reclassification as English proficient on reclassification rates. Compared with existing decision rules in the students’ state, proposed models allow many more LTELs to reclassify as English proficient, and most LTELs not reclassifying are students in special education. Discussion focuses on interpreting ELD scores for students who have remained classified as ELs for more than a few years.

Language Through Music: Bridging the Opportunity Gap in the ELD Classroom

Because long-term English language learners (LTELs) in California normatively take two hours of English language instruction beginning in middle school, their schedules disallow participation in electives, such as arts, representing a significant opportunity gap. This mixed methods study examined the student, parent, and teacher experiences as well as the student English language development outcomes of a pilot program undertaken in one Southern California school district, in which one class of 17 LTEL students were placed into a choir class that embedded ELD standards into the curriculum. After one semester of the pilot program, qualitative data in the form of interviews, journals, and a focus group indicated that the program improved social-emotional outcomes for LTEL students and was highly supported by their parents, while teachers indicated that the program was positive, but needed further support in order to work well as a regular course offering. Quantitative results derived from ANCOVA analyses of English language assessments indicated that the students in the program significantly improved in their English development in comparison to a demographically matched control group from the same district. Implications for practice and further research are discussed.  

Bookshelf: Kappan authors on their favorite reads

In this monthly column, Kappan authors discuss books and articles that have informed their views on education. Jessica Minahan recommends The Explosive Child by Ross W. Greene. Kristin Conradi Smith recommends Transforming Literacy Education for Long-Term English Learners by Maneka Brooks.

Bridges across languages and cultures: Narratives of long-term English learners

ABSTRACT This narrative inquiry highlights the experiences of three high school students labeled Long-term English learners (LTEL) in a North Texas high school. This narrative inquiry study uses semi-structured interviews to restory the students’ lives, emphasizing the emergent themes of family (the strongest pillar) and the language of the home (Spanish). The metaphor of the bridge, a connector across language and culture, offers insights into the students’ perspectives of their developing identities as bilingual and bicultural youth. Regarding the theme family (the strongest pillar), the students perceived their families as connecting them to their cultural heritage, providing emotional/social bonds, and advancing their academic interests. Regarding the theme the language of the home (Spanish), the students valued Spanish as the language of the heart, interlinking them with their native roots. Moreover, the students’ narratives demonstrate the importance of integrating additive learning experiences at school, designed to support LTEL students’ native languages and cultures. The article concludes with a pragmatic discussion about cultivating inclusive schooling cultures for LTEL learners.

Breaking the Silence: A Critical Review of Language Policy and Planning for Long-Term English Learners

Despite scholarship on emergent bilingual students that continues to evolve, the subgroup of emergent bilinguals who are labeled as long-term English learners (LTELs) have been overlooked and underserved for too long. LTELs refer to English learners who have been educated in a U.S. school for six years or more. This literature review is aimed at bringing awareness to this subgroup population and identifying the characteristics and classification process of LTELs described in the present scholarship. The review critically examines the de facto policy about LTELs from perspectives of the current climate of standardized tests (language management), the label itself (language ideology), and programs and schooling experience of these students (language practice). The literature review not only speaks to the stereotypes, struggles, and challenges that LTELs face, but also calls for future research studies to be conducted in addressing these problems pedagogically, institutionally, and systematically. Keywordslong-term English learners, English proficiency, language policy, standardized test, labeling

Transforming Literacy Education for Long-Term English Learners: Recognizing Brilliance in the Undervalued by Maneka Deanna Brooks

Transforming Literacy Education for Long-Term English Learners: Recognizing Brilliance in the Undervalued by Maneka Deanna Brooks

Dual Language Learning and Educational Success for Youth

Effectively educating children and youth who are learning English as their second language is a national challenge with consequences both for individuals and for American society. Despite their potential, many English learners are struggling to meet the requirements for academic success jeopardizing their prospects for success in postsecondary education and the workforce. This article is based on a consensus report from the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, Promoting the Educational Success of Children and Youth Learning English: Promising Futures published in 2017, and briefly reviews language development among dual language and English learners and the development of English proficiency. The article also discusses promising and effective practices for children and youth learning English in grades pre-K through 12. The needs of dual language learners and English learners with disabilities and those of long-term English learners are also discussed.

Stuck in the middle: examination of long-term English learners

ABSTRACT Using student-level longitudinal data from one large urban school district, I examine Long-term English Learners’ (LTELs) characteristics and their linguistic and academic performance in comparison to on-track English learners and initially fluent students. I also investigate what factors are related to their becoming LTELs. This study focuses on English learners (ELs) whose home language is Spanish, the major language group in the district. The findings indicate LTELs often have disadvantaged characteristics and underperform against non-LTELs across grades, and ELs with disabilities are more likely to become LTELs than other ELs. Not all ELs with the highest initially English proficiency avoided becoming LTELs, which provides implications on the EL classification and programs.

Translanguaging in the Case of Bilingual University Students

According to Garcia (2009), translanguaging is “… the act performed by bilinguals of accessing different linguistic features or various modes of what are described as autonomous languages, in order to maximize communicative potential” (p. 140). Therefore, it is more about communication than language use. Bilinguals tend to employ their linguistic repertoire as an integrated communication system. In the context of this study, senior university bilingual students majoring in business in Saudi Arabia are usually competent in their mother tongue (Arabic) and in their additional language (English) due to the nature of business. They are keen to maintain their ability in English as far as possible as they consider themselves “long-term English learners”. Today, Saudi Arabia is increasingly building bridges to the outside world and clearly proficiency in English is one such bridge, allowing Saudi Arabia to integrate with English-speaking countries. Stakeholders in Saudi Arabia are now seeking English-proficient applicants for jobs, regardless of their speciality, more so than previously. This has become the norm in both the public and private sectors. However, bilingual university students majoring in business still tend to employ their mother tongue regardless of their proficiency in English. This may indicate their views and feelings with regard to the need to be bilingual in any future work context. This study focuses on senior business students at Majmaah University. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with the students (n=14) and their instructor (n=1). This paper reports on the students’ attitudes towards bilingual activities, specifically task-related discussions, and the impact on their communicative repertoire from their perspective.

Long‐term English learners: Current research, policy, and practice

Given that English learners (ELs) comprise one of the fastest growing populations in PK–12 environments, long‐term English learners (LTELs) form one subgroup that provokes particular concern. This article explores current understandings of the LTEL designation and discusses diagnostic processes and assessment tools for determining English language proficiency. Complexities of referring ELs/LTELs for special education are then probed with regard to drawing the careful line between language proficiency processes and special education needs. Finally, the authors present possible interventions for LTELs, including the Internationals Network as a large‐scale intervention model, followed by smaller scale interventions made on behalf of LTELs in existing schools. The article concludes with strategies and suggestions toward better outcomes for LTELs in school.