Long-term Training Effects Research Articles

Multimodal physical training combined with tDCS improves physical fitness components in people after stroke: a double-blind randomized controlled trial

ABSTRACT Background Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) seems to be a potential tool to optimize the long-term effects of multimodal physical training (MPT) on fitness components in post-stroke patients. Objective We investigated the effects of cortical tDCS combined with MPT on motor function reflected by strength, motor performance, and cardiorespiratory capacity in chronic stroke patients. Methods This double-blind randomized controlled trial included 18 volunteers (55 ± 10 y, 72 ± 13 kg), who underwent MPT preceded by either sham stimulation (SHAM) or 2 mA bi-hemispheric tDCS. MPT consisted of 24 sessions of 60–70 min performed 2 d/wk within 12–16 weeks, with individualized intensity. Outcomes were Fugl-Meyer scores for lower limbs (FM-LL), and total (FM-Total); speed in the 10-m walk test (10MWT); oxygen uptake and work output at maximal effort (VO2max and Wmax), and gas exchange threshold (VO2-GET and W-GET); peak torque of isokinetic knee extension (PT-EXT) and flexion (PT-FLEX) of paretic and non-paretic limbs; bilateral strength deficit during knee extension (DS-EXT) and flexion (DS-FLEX). Results Pre- vs. post-intervention improvements were detected in tDCS vs. SHAM (p < 0.05) for FM-total (29.6% vs. 15.9%; effect size [ES] = 0.78), FM-LL (35.9% vs. 9.0%; ES = 1.23), 10MWT (10.6% vs. 3.8%; ES = 0.67), Wmax (75.0% vs. 4.3%; ES = 1.68), W-GET (91.6% vs. 12.4%; ES = 1.62), PT-EXT (25.6% vs. −6.5%; ES = 1.94) and PT-FLEX (26.3% vs. 9.8%; ES = 0.65) of the paretic limb, and DS-EXT (−13.7% vs. 2.5; ES = 1.43). Conclusion Bi-hemispheric cortical tDCS optimized the effects of MPT performed with moderate volume and intensity upon muscle strength, motor function, and cardiorespiratory performance in stroke hemiparetic survivors. (Registration number RBR-22rh3p).

Long-term effects of cognitive training in Parkinson’s disease: A randomized, controlled trial

BackgroundComputerized cognitive training may be promising to improve cognitive impairment in Parkinson’s disease and has even been suggested to delay cognitive decline. However, evidence to date is limited. The aim of this study was to assess the durability of eight-week cognitive training effects at up to two years follow-up. MethodsOne hundred and thirty-six (136) individuals with Parkinson’s disease, subjective cognitive complaints but without severe cognitive impairment (Montreal Cognitive Assessment ≥ 22) participated in this double-blind RCT. Participants underwent an eight-week home-based intervention of either adaptive, computerized cognitive training with BrainGymmer (n = 68) or an active control (n = 68). They underwent extensive neuropsychological assessment, psychiatric questionnaires and motor symptom assessment at baseline and one and two years after the intervention. We used mixed-model analyses to assess changes in cognitive function at follow-up and performed Fisher’s exact tests to assess conversion of cognitive status. ResultsThere were no group differences on any neuropsychological assessment outcome at one- and two-year follow-up. Groups were equally likely to show conversion of cognitive status at follow-up. A considerable amount of assessments was missed (1y: n = 27; 2y: n = 33), most notably due to COVID-19 regulations. ConclusionsEight-week cognitive training did not affect long-term cognitive function in Parkinson’s disease. Future studies may focus on one cognitive subgroup to enhance reliability of study results. Intervention improvements are needed to work towards effective, lasting treatment options.

A computer interface controlled by upper limb muscles: effects of a two weeks training on younger and older adults.

As the population worldwide ages, there is a growing need for assistive technology and effective human-machine interfaces to address the wider range of motor disabilities that older adults may experience. Motor disabilities can make it difficult for individuals to perform basic daily tasks, such as getting dressed, preparing meals, or using a computer. The goal of this study was to investigate the effect of two weeks of training with a myoelectric computer interface (MCI) on motor functions in younger and older subjects. Twenty people were recruited in the study: thirteen younger (range: 22-35 years old) and seven older (range: 61-78 years old) subjects. Participants completed six training sessions of about 2 hours each, during which the activity of right and left biceps and trapezius were mapped into a control signal for the cursor of a computer. Results highlighted significant improvements in cursor control, and therefore in muscle coordination, in both groups. All participants with training became faster and more accurate, although people in different age range learned with a different dynamic. Results of the questionnaire on system usability and quality highlighted a general consensus about easiness of use and intuitiveness. These findings suggest that the proposed MCI training can be a powerful tool in the framework of assistive technologies for both younger and older subjects groups. Further research is needed to determine the optimal duration and intensity of MCI training for different age groups and to investigate long-term effects of training on physical and cognitive function.

Long-term effects of mnemonic training in healthy older adults: A meta-analysis.

Mnemonic training can improve episodic memory function, the most aging-sensitive functional domain in older adults. However, it remains unclear whether memory training gains can be maintained over time. In this meta-analysis, we aimed to investigate the long-term effects (pretest to follow-up) of mnemonic training in improving memory among older adults. Eligible studies were randomized controlled trials of mnemonic training with follow-up assessments (ranging from 0.5 to 32 months, median follow-up duration = 4 months) in healthy older adults (aged ≥ 50 years) without known cognitive impairment. Twenty-one studies, with a total of 4,149 participants, were identified. The three-level meta-analyses indicated that the immediate (pre- to post-test) and long-term effect sizes on episodic memory were 0.408 and 0.418 (Hedges'g, ps < .001), respectively. In addition, the results revealed significant immediate effect (g = 0.362, p < .01) and long-term effect (g = 0.227, p < .01) on subjective memory. It is recommended that future studies incorporate more real-world outcomes and multiple follow-ups and boosters to determine training effects on everyday functioning over time. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Intraoperative Code Blue: Improving Teamwork and Code Response Through Interprofessional, In Situ Simulation.

An intraoperative cardiac arrest requires perioperative teams to be equipped with the technical skills, nontechnical skills, and confidence to provide the best resuscitative measures for the patient. In situ simulation (simulation conducted in health professionals' work environment, such as a patient care unit, and not in an off-site location) has the potential to improve team performance. The research team assessed the effects of in situ simulation on code response, teamwork, communication, and comfort in intraoperative resuscitations. This study included seven interprofessional teams consisting of RNs, anesthesiologists, surgical technologists, and patient care technicians working in the operating room of a community hospital in New Jersey. The hour-long interdisciplinary simulation training sessions consisted of a code blue scenario run twice; both times video recorded, retrospectively reviewed, and compared to each other. Technical skills were measured by "time-to-tasks"; nontechnical skills were assessed using the Team Emergency Assessment Measure (TEAM) instrument. Self-reported comfort in skills was collected before the simulation program and after completion of the training. A total of 21 perioperative nurses, 7 anesthesiologists, 7 surgical technologists, and 4 patient care technicians participated from January to April 2021. There was a significant (p < 0.05) decrease in time to compressions (by 14 seconds, 53.5% improvement) and in time to defibrillation (by 49 seconds) between the two simulations. Significant improvements were noted in confidence levels of certain CPR-related technical skills. There were statistically significant improvements in TEAM scores in the two teams that performed lowest in the pre-debrief simulation (p < 0.05). In the operative setting, where time and space for training are limited, in situ simulation training was associated with improvement in technical skills of individuals and teams, with significantly improved teamwork in teams that required the most training. The long-term effects of such training and its effects on patient outcomes require additional research.

Adolescents’ perceptions of long-term effects of cycle skills training

Cycling to school is uncommon among adolescents in most developed countries. Development of cycling skills through cycle skills training (CST) can reduce cycling-related safety concerns. This study examined long-term effects of CST retrospectively by comparing adolescents’ perceptions of cycling to school and their confidence to cycle to school among those who participated in CST in primary and/or intermediate school with non-participants. Adolescents (n=1,260; 51% female; 12 schools) from Dunedin (New Zealand) completed an online survey at school. Adolescents self-reported transport modes to school, perceptions of cycling to school and CST, and previous participation in and perceived benefits of school-based CST programmes. Only 1-2% adolescents usually cycled to school. Overall, 42% agreed CST would make them safer in traffic (no significant difference between CST participants (n=512) and non-participants (n=748)). Among CST participants, 32% reported that CST increased their confidence to cycle to school and those adolescents had more favourable attitudes towards CST than participants who reported no effects. In a multivariable analysis, adolescents’ perceptions that CST increased their cycling confidence were positively associated with self-efficacy for cycling to school (odds ratio (OR) (95% confidence interval (CI)): 1.33 (1.07, 1.67)), perceived school support (1.51 (1.01, 2.25)), parental cycling-related safety concerns (1.84 (1.25, 2.69)) and being Māori (6.47 (2.36, 17.7)) or other ethnic origins (2.26 (1.00, 5.10); reference: New Zealand Europeans). Therefore, CST could be a useful strategy to support adolescents’ cycling to school, ideally (as suggested in the literature) in combination with appropriate infrastructure changes and speed management measures.

Acute Effects of Cognitive Training Game on Functional Brain Asymmetry and Motor Performance in Golf Putting: A Pilot Study

ABSTRACT Neural and behavioral evidence has indicated that video games and mental training can enhance motor skills and attentional stability. The purpose of this study is to investigate the acute effect of a single session of cognitive game training on electroencephalography (EEG) activity and golf putting performance (10, 12 ft putts). A total of twelve participants (10 males, 2 females, aged 22–59) participated in this study. Seven participants were assigned to an experimental group. This group putted before and after a 10-min of cognitive game training; five additional participants were assigned to a control group, sitting quietly with limited physical movements. Measures of EEG signals (i.e., frontal alpha asymmetry, temporal alpha asymmetry) and performance outcomes (i.e., accuracy, quality of feel) were recorded before and after the intervention. The experimental group demonstrated a significantly increased quality of putting feel compared to the control group. Although functional brain asymmetry did not approach a significant level, it was speculated that this single session of cognitive game training might stimulate approaching attention to the target (i.e., hole) and reduce mental exertions which could explain why the experimental group showed a high quality of feel in their performance. Future work is still needed with larger sample size and controlled variables (e.g., eye-dominance, handedness) to examine the long-term effects of cognitive game training on motor performance in skilled and novice golfers, respectively.

Long-Term Effects of Inspiratory Muscle Training in Institutionalized Elderly Women: A Double-Blind Randomized Controlled Trial

Background: Inspiratory muscle training (IMT) has been applied to different populations, but evidence in elderly women and maintenance of improvements achieved during training is scarce. The objective of the study was to evaluate the effectiveness of IMT 6 months after finishing the training period in elderly women. Methods: A controlled, randomized, double-blind trial was conducted, with allocation concealment performed on 26 institutionalized elderly women distributed into 2 groups: high loads and low loads. Over an 8-week period, an IMT protocol was followed; later, elderly women continued for 6 months with their daily normal activities. Inspiratory strength, expiratory strength, and functional capacity were measured pre-IMT, post-IMT, and 6 months after intervention. Results: After an 8-week training, respiratory strength and functional capacity increased in both groups. Six months after finishing the intervention, these benefits were lost. Inspiratory strength decreased in the high-loads group but was 32% higher than initial values (p = 0.007); in the low-loads group, patients lost 41% (p = 0.015). Improvements were higher in the high-loads group after training (p = 0.000) and follow-up (p = 0.002). Functional capacity was similar to initial values in both groups. Conclusion: The improvements achieved with IMT in elderly women disappeared 6 months after the end of training. High loads were more effective to keep inspiratory strength than low loads.

Immediate and long-term effects of a perceptual training in the production of word-initial /s/-clusters in Brazilian Portuguese/English interphonology

The present study aimed at investigating effects of perceptual training in the production of word-initial /s/-clusters in Brazilian Portuguese/English interphonology. The hypotheses proposed that there would be improvement in production after training and that such improvement would also be found in an eight-month follow-up test and in a twelve-year follow-up test. Also, it was hypothesized that the production of /s/+sonorants would remain more problematic than the production of /s/+stops after training. Twenty-three Brazilians who spoke English as a foreign language at a minimum B1 level of proficiency participated in the study. Eight of them were assigned to a control group. The fifteen remaining participants took a test consisting of reading tasks and an interview before and after an identification perceptual training following a high variability approach. Eight months later, eight participants from the experimental group took a follow-up test with the same tasks from pre- and posttests. Twelve years later one participant took another follow-up test. Results indicated that production of word-initial /s/-clusters improved significantly right after training and that the improvement was also found in both eight-month and twelve-year follow-up tests even for clusters which had not been trained. /s/+sonorants remained more problematic than /s/+stops and voicing was found to be more persistent than other mispronunciations of word-initial /s/-clusters. The transfer of improvement from perception to production may indicate that there is a common mental representation underlying both domains and that changes in production performance may reflect changes in mental representation of non-native targets.

Weighted Baseball Training Affects Arm Speed Without Increasing Elbow and Shoulder Joint Kinetics.

Long-term training effects of weighted ball throwing programs have been well documented. However, the mechanisms that facilitate these effects are poorly understood. The purpose of this study is to investigate within-session effects of throwing overload and underload baseballs to provide mechanistic evidence for weighted baseball training methods. Twenty-six collegiate- and professional-level baseball pitchers aged 20-30years (mean age 23.5 [2.7]y) participated in a biomechanical evaluation while pitching a series of leather weighted baseballs. A 1-way repeated-measures analysis of variance was used to evaluate the intrasubject effect of ball weight on a total of 15 kinematic, kinetic, and performance parameters. Ball weight significantly affected pitch velocity, maximum elbow flexion, maximum pelvis rotation velocity, maximum shoulder internal rotation velocity, maximum elbow extension velocity, and anterior trunk tilt at ball release. None of the measured arm joint kinetics were significantly affected by ball weight. Training with 3- to 7-ounce (85- to 198-g) baseballs can be used to work on increasing pitching velocity without increasing throwing arm joint kinetics.

Quadriceps or triceps surae proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation stretching with post-stretching dynamic activities does not induce acute changes in running economy.

Previous studies reported that both a more compliant quadriceps tendon and a stiffer Achilles tendon are associated with better running economy. While tendon stiffness can be decreased by a single bout of proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF), post-stretching dynamic activities (PSA) can counteract the potential stretch-induced force loss. Thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate if a single, moderate duration, (4 × 15 s), bout of PNF stretching of either the quadriceps or triceps surae muscles followed each by PSA, causes either an improvement or impairment in running economy. Eighteen trained male runners/triathletes visited the laboratory five times. The first two visits were to familiarize the participants and to test for maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) respectively. The further three appointments were randomly assigned to either 1.) quadriceps PNF stretching + PSA or 2.) triceps surae PNF stretching + PSA or 3.) no stretching + PSA. Following the interventions, participants performed a 15-min run on the treadmill with a speed reflecting a velocity of 70% VO2max to assess oxygen consumption (i.e., running economy) and running biomechanics. Our results showed neither a difference in oxygen consumption (p = 0.15) nor a change in any variable of the running biomechanics (p > 0.33) during the steady-state (i.e., last 5 min) of the 15-min run. Athletes can perform moderate duration PNF stretching of the quadriceps or triceps surae + PSA prior to a running event, without affecting running economy. Future studies should emphasize long-term training effects on tendon stiffness adaptations and running economy.

Never Too Late to Train: The Effects of Pelvic Floor Muscle Training on the Shape of the Levator Hiatus in Incontinent Older Women.

Pelvic floor muscle (PFM) training is the first-line treatment for women of all ages with urinary incontinence (UI), but evidence supporting its effects on the functional anatomy of the pelvic floor is scarce in older women. We aimed to evaluate the long-term (one-year) effects of PFM training on the shape of the levator hiatus (LH) in older women with UI and its association with PFM force, incontinence severity, and potential effect modifiers (age, UI severity, BMI, and UI type). This is a secondary analysis of the GROUP study, a non-inferiority RCT assessing the effects of a structured and progressive 12-week PFM training program to treat UI in older women. Data were available from 264/308 participants at the one-year follow-up. PFM training resulted in reduced LH size toward a more “circular” shape, which was consistently associated with greater PFM force and reduced UI severity. Further, no significant interactions were found between LH shape changes and any of the potential effect modifiers, suggesting that women will potentially benefit from PFM training, regardless of age, UI severity, BMI, and UI type (stress or mixed), with changes that can be observed in the functional anatomy of the pelvic floor and sustained in the long-term.

The antidepressant effect of cognitive reappraisal training on individuals cognitively vulnerable to depression: Could cognitive bias be modified through the prefrontal-amygdala circuits?

Cognitive reappraisal (CR) is one of the core treatment components of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and is the gold standard treatment for major depressive disorders. Accumulating evidence indicates that cognitive reappraisal could function as a protective factor of cognitive vulnerability to depression. However, the neural mechanism by which CR training reduces cognitive vulnerability to depression is unclear. There is ample evidence that the prefrontal–amygdala circuit is involved in CR. This study proposes a novel cognitive bias model of CR training which hypothesizes that CR training may improve the generation ability of CR with altered prefrontal–amygdala functional activation/connectivity, thus reducing negative cognitive bias (negative attention bias, negative memory bias, negative interpretation bias, and/or negative rumination bias) and alleviating depressive symptoms. This study aims to (1) explore whether there is abnormal CR strategy generation ability in individuals who are cognitively vulnerable to depression; (2) test the hypothesis that CR training alleviates depressive symptoms through the mediators of cognitive bias (interpretation bias and/or rumination bias); (3) explore the neural mechanism by which CR training may enhance the ability of CR strategy generation; and (4) examine the short- and long-term effects of CR training on the reduction in depressive symptoms in individuals who are cognitively vulnerable to depression following intervention and 6 months later. The study is promising, providing theoretical and practical evidence for the early intervention of depression-vulnerable individuals.

Time course of epigenetic modulation in response to concurrent exercise training in patients with schizophrenia

This study aimed to investigate the short and long-term effects of concurrent exercise training on anthropometric variables, HDCA2 activity and cortisol levels of individuals with schizophrenia (SZ). Therefore, 10 patients were submitted to the program (endurance and strength exercises in the same session, 60 min of duration, three times a week) and blood samples were collected before, 30 days and 180 days after the intervention started. Exercise training reduced the body mass index and body mass after 180 days of the intervention. A significant decrease on HDAC2 activity was found 180 days after intervention compared to before the intervention. The cortisol levels remained unchanged in any evaluated time-points. The concurrent exercise training was able to modulate HDAC2 activity in mononuclear cells and improve anthropometric variables in a time-dependent manner in patients with SZ.

Contextual memory reactivation modulates Ca2+-activity network state in a mushroom body-like center of the crab N. granulata

High-order brain centers play key roles in sensory integration and cognition. In arthropods, much is known about the insect high-order centers that support associative memory processes, the mushroom bodies. The hypothesis that crustaceans possess structures equivalent to the mushroom bodies -traditionally called hemiellipsoid body- has been receiving neuroanatomical endorsement. The recent functional support is limited to the short term: in a structure of the true crab Neohelice granulata that has many insect-like mushroom bodies traits, the plastic learning changes express the context attribute of an associative memory trace. Here, we used in vivo calcium imaging to test whether neuronal activity in this structure is associated with memory reactivation in the long-term (i.e., 24 h after training). Long-term training effects were tested by presenting the training-context alone, a reminder known to trigger memory reconsolidation. We found similar spontaneous activity between trained and naïve animals. However, after training-context presentation, trained animals showed increased calcium events rate, suggesting that memory reactivation induced a change in the underlying physiological state of this center. Reflecting the change in the escape response observed in the paradigm, animals trained with a visual danger stimulus showed significantly lower calcium-evoked transients in the insect-like mushroom body. Protein synthesis inhibitor cycloheximide administered during consolidation prevented calcium mediated changes. Moreover, we found the presence of distinct calcium activity spatial patterns. Results suggest that intrinsic neurons of this crustacean mushroom body-like center are involved in contextual associative long-term memory processes.

Short- and Long-Term Effects of High-Intensity Interval Training vs. Moderate-Intensity Continuous Training on Left Ventricular Remodeling in Patients Early After ST-Segment Elevation Myocardial Infarction-The HIIT-EARLY Randomized Controlled Trial.

AimDue to insufficient evidence on the safety and effectiveness of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) in patients early after ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI), we aimed to compare short- and long-term effects of randomized HIIT or moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT) on markers of left ventricular (LV) remodeling in STEMI patients receiving optimal guideline-directed medical therapy (GDMT).Materials and MethodsPatients after STEMI (<4 weeks) enrolled in a 12-week cardiac rehabilitation (CR) program were recruited for this randomized controlled trial (NCT02627586). During a 3-week run-in period with three weekly MICT sessions, GDMT was up-titrated. Then, the patients were randomized to HIIT or isocaloric MICT for 9 weeks. Echocardiography and cardiopulmonary exercise tests were performed after run-in (3 weeks), end of CR (12 weeks), and at 1-year follow-up. The primary outcome was LV end-diastolic volume index (LVEDVi) at the end of CR. Secondary outcomes were LV global longitudinal strain (GLS) and cardiopulmonary fitness.ResultsSeventy-three male patients were included, with the time between STEMI and start of CR and randomization being 12.5 ± 6.3 and 45.8 ± 10.8 days, respectively. Mixed models revealed no significant group × time interaction for LVEDVi at the end of CR (p = 0.557). However, there was a significantly smaller improvement in GLS at 1-year follow-up in the HIIT compared to the MICT group (p = 0.031 for group × time interaction). Cardiorespiratory fitness improved significantly from a median value of 26.5 (1st quartile 24.4; 3rd quartile 1.1) ml/kg/min at randomization in the HIIT and 27.7 (23.9; 31.6) ml/kg/min in the MICT group to 29.6 (25.3; 32.2) and 29.9 (26.1; 34.9) ml/kg/min at the end of CR and to 29.0 (26.6; 33.3) and 30.6 (26.0; 33.8) ml/kg/min at 1 year follow-up in HIIT and MICT patients, respectively, with no significant group × time interactions (p = 0.138 and 0.317).ConclusionIn optimally treated patients early after STEMI, HIIT was not different from isocaloric MICT with regard to short-term effects on LVEDVi and cardiorespiratory fitness. The worsening in GLS at 1 year in the HIIT group deserves further investigation, as early HIIT may offset the beneficial effects of GDMT on LV remodeling in the long term.

Effectiveness of Response Inhibition Training and Its Long-Term Effects in Healthy Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

ObjectiveThis study aims to evaluate the effectiveness and long-term effects of response inhibition training as a therapeutic approach in healthy adults.MethodsThe PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), Wanfang, and China Science and Technology Journal Database (VIP) were searched for studies. Data on the improvement of Cognitive function and its long-term effect were extracted by two authors independently. The pooled data were meta-analyzed using a random-effects model, and the quality of each eligible study was assessed by The Cochrane Collaboration’s tool.ResultsNine articles were included. 1 of the articles included 2 trials, so 10 eligible trials (response inhibition training group vs. control group) were identified. A total of 490 patients were included. Response inhibition training has beneficial effects on improving cognitive function in healthy adults compared to control treatment (SMD, −0.93; 95% CI, −1.56 to −0.30; Z = 2.88, P = 0.004), the subgroup analysis results showed that either GNG training alone (SMD, −2.27; 95% CI, −3.33 to −1.21; Z = 4.18, P < 0.0001) or the combination of both SST and GNG significantly improved cognitive function in healthy adults (SMD, −0.94; 95% CI, −1.33 to −0.56; Z = 4.80, P < 0.0001), whereas SST training alone did not have such an effect (SMD, −0.15; 95% CI, −0.76 to 0.47; Z = 0.47, P = 0.64). But its long-term effects are not significant (SMD, −0.29; 95% CI, −0.68 to 0.10; Z = 1.45, P = 0.15). The subgroup analysis results showed that neither GNG training alone (SMD, −0.25; 95% CI, −0.75 to 0.24; Z = 0.99, P = 0.32) nor SST training alone (SMD, 0.03; 95% CI, −0.42 to 0.48; Z = 0.14, P = 0.89) could improve the cognitive function of healthy adults in the long term. In contrast, the combination of both training (SMD, −0.95; 95% CI, −1.46 to −0.45; Z = 3.68, P = 0.0002) can have long-term effects on the improvement of cognitive function in healthy adults.ConclusionThe findings of our study indicate that response inhibition training can improve the cognitive function of healthy adults and that more RCTs need to be conducted to validate their usefulness in clinical cases.

Self-Reported Long-Term Implications of a Marathon Training Program for Adolescents: A Qualitative Study

This project helped to gain a deeper understanding of the long-term effects of a community-based marathon training on physical activity levels, psychological health status, character development, and positive health habit behaviors in young adults who completed.

When left is right: The effects of paw preference training on behaviour in mice

Spontaneous limb preferences exist in numerous species. To investigate the underlying mechanisms of these preferences, different methods, such as training, have been developed to shift preferences artificially. However, studies that systematically examine the effects of shifting preferences on behaviour and physiology are largely missing. Therefore, the aim of this study was to assess the impact of shifting paw preferences via training on spontaneous home cage behaviour, as well as anxiety-like behaviour and exploratory locomotion (Elevated plus maze test, Dark light test, Open field test, Free exploration test), learning performance (Labyrinth-maze) and stress hormones (fecal corticosterone metabolites) in laboratory mice (Mus musculus f. domestica). For this, we assessed spontaneous paw preferences of C57BL/6J females (Nambilateral = 23, Nleft = 23, Nright = 25). Subsequently, half of the individuals from each category were trained once a week for four weeks in a food-reaching task to use either their left or right paw, respectively, resulting in six groups: AL, AR, LL, LR, RL, RR. After training, a battery of behavioural tests was performed and spontaneous preferences were assessed again. Our results indicate that most mice were successfully trained and the effect of training was present days after training. However, a significant difference of preferences between RL and LL mice during training suggests a rather low training success of RL mice. Additionally, preferences of L mice differed from those of A and R mice after training, indicating differential long-term effects of training in these groups. Furthermore, left paw training led to higher levels of self-grooming, possibly as a displacement behaviour, and more time spent in the light compartment of the Dark light test. However, overall, there was no systematic influence of training on behavioural measures and stress hormones. Different explanations for this lack of influence, such as the link between training and hemispheric functioning or the intensity and ecological relevance of the training, are discussed.

Long-term effects of high-intensity interval training, moderate-to-vigorous intensity continuous training and Nordic walking on physical and mental health in patients with coronary artery disease

Abstract Funding Acknowledgements Type of funding sources: Public grant(s) – National budget only. Main funding source(s): Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) Postdoctoral Fellowship Background/Introduction Twelve weeks of high-intensity interval training (HIIT), moderate-to-vigorous intensity continuous training (MICT) and Nordic walking (NW) have been shown to improve functional capacity, quality of life (QoL) and depression in patients with coronary artery disease (CAD). However, their long-term effects are unknown. Purpose The primary purpose was to compare the long-term effects and sustainability of 12 weeks of HIIT, MICT and NW on functional capacity. The secondary purpose was to assess the long-term effects and sustainability of 12 weeks of HIIT, MICT and NW on QoL and depression severity. Methods Patients with CAD were randomized to a 12-week HIIT, MICT or NW program. Functional capacity, QoL and depression severity were measured at baseline, at the end of 12 weeks of intervention, and following 14 weeks of observation phase (week 26). Functional capacity was measured with a 6-minute walk test (6MWT); QoL was assessed by the HeartQoL and Short-Form-36; and depression severity by the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II). The long-term effects (changes between baseline and week 26) and sustainability (changes between week 12 and week 26) were assessed by linear mixed models for repeated measures. Results Of 130 participants randomized, 86 (HIIT: n=29, MICT: n=27, NW: n=30) completed week 26 assessments. There were significant improvements in 6MWT distance (F=149.657, p&amp;lt;0.001), QoL and depression severity (both p&amp;lt;0.05) from baseline to week 26; the increase in 6MWT distance was greater for NW when compared to MICT (F=7.021, p=0.010) and HIIT (F=5.279, p=0.025, Figure). Between week 12 and week 26, 6MWT distance (F=10.863, p=0.001) and physical QoL (physical component summary [PCS]; F=4.084, p=0.047) increased significantly, whereas mental QoL significantly decreased (mental component summary [MCS]; F=4.052, p=0.047). Conclusion HIIT, MICT and NW have positive long-term impacts on functional capacity, QoL and depression severity. However, NW was shown to confer additional benefits in increasing long-term functional capacity. The positive effects of the 12-week exercise programs were sustained at week 26 except for mental QoL.