Long-term Athlete Research Articles

Effects of Resistance Training in Youth Athletes on Muscular Fitness and Athletic Performance: A Conceptual Model for Long-Term Athlete Development.

During the stages of long-term athlete development (LTAD), resistance training (RT) is an important means for (i) stimulating athletic development, (ii) tolerating the demands of long-term training and competition, and (iii) inducing long-term health promoting effects that are robust over time and track into adulthood. However, there is a gap in the literature with regards to optimal RT methods during LTAD and how RT is linked to biological age. Thus, the aims of this scoping review were (i) to describe and discuss the effects of RT on muscular fitness and athletic performance in youth athletes, (ii) to introduce a conceptual model on how to appropriately implement different types of RT within LTAD stages, and (iii) to identify research gaps from the existing literature by deducing implications for future research. In general, RT produced small-to-moderate effects on muscular fitness and athletic performance in youth athletes with muscular strength showing the largest improvement. Free weight, complex, and plyometric training appear to be well-suited to improve muscular fitness and athletic performance. In addition, balance training appears to be an important preparatory (facilitating) training program during all stages of LTAD but particularly during the early stages. As youth athletes become more mature, specificity, and intensity of RT methods increase. This scoping review identified research gaps that are summarized in the following and that should be addressed in future studies: (i) to elucidate the influence of gender and biological age on the adaptive potential following RT in youth athletes (especially in females), (ii) to describe RT protocols in more detail (i.e., always report stress and strain-based parameters), and (iii) to examine neuromuscular and tendomuscular adaptations following RT in youth athletes.

Skills trained by coaches of Canadian male volleyball teams: A comparison with long-term athlete development guidelines

Volleyball Canada and Volleyball Quebec developed long-term athlete development models in order to guide volleyball coaches concerned with athlete development. These models propose guidelines about the development of skills. However, it has yet to be determined whether coaches apply long-term athlete development guidelines in their coaching practice. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to describe the amount of time devoted to the various skills trained by four volleyball coaches of different levels and to compare these training skills with the long-term athlete development guidelines. The results of this multiple case study (n = 4) indicated that based on long-term athlete development guidelines, (a) college and university coaches over-trained technical skills; (b) high school coaches and university coaches undertrained individual tactical skills; and (c) high school coaches over-trained team tactical skills. Corrective measures that might help coaches apply the long-term athlete development guidelines are changes in the access to training facilities, competition schedules, and coach education programs.

The Spanish “Century XXI” academy for developing elite level basketballers: design, monitoring and training methodologies

ABSTRACTObjectives: The XXI Century Academy was a 6-year state-initiated intervention program that served as an alternative to basketball clubs for players in the u-14 and u-18 age groups in Spain, under guidelines established by the Spanish Basketball Federation. It was an important and unique project on talent development in basketball. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, no evidence has been reported on long-term athlete development programs in basketball worldwide. The main aim of this report is to describe the design and evaluation methods used for the XXI Century Academy as a long-term intervention program in the elite Spanish Basketball Academy, aiming to prepare basketball players to compete at the elite level.Methods: The monitoring time lasted from 1996 to 2001. A total of 55 players were assigned to the intervention groups based on age, position, maturation level, and country of origin. During this process, participants competed in up to two categories in addition to playing competitive official matches worldwide in international tournaments in their categories and with the national team in the European and World Championships (u-14 - u-18). Participants included 1 NBA player, 3 national A Team players, 10 ACB (First Spanish League) players, 5 LEB (second League) players and 39 LEB-2 EBA (third League) players. Assessments took place in a High-Performance Sports Center (CPT FADURA-GETXO- Basque Government, Getxo, Vizcaya, Spain) and consisted of health questionnaires, anthropometric measures, blood parameters, maturation level, birth age, fitness tests, training volume and intensity, physical activity, technical and tactical training, dietary intake, supplementation and injuries. Each player was assessed 4 times per year (September, December, April, June) for 4 years (16 data points).Results: This is a purely methodological paper describing the design and evaluation methods used in the XXI Century Project, which will be used as a basis for future reporting of results. Therefore, the results of the project will be reported in subsequent publications.Conclusion: The viability of the Century XXI Project protocols has been described. This national project of training in basketball closely replicates the physical and technical match-play conditions for professionals and may constitute a useful training tool.

Lack of transformation in sport and the long-term athlete development programme

Lack of transformation in sport and the long-term athlete development programme

A Hosszú-távú Sportolófejlesztési Program szükségszerűsége a magyar sportban

A Hosszú-távú Sportolófejlesztési Program szükségszerűsége a magyar sportban

Re-Considering Long-Term Athlete Development on Coach Education: An Illustration from Judo

The purpose in this paper is to examine the effectiveness/usefulness of the long-term athlete development (LTAD) model, particularly in the coaching of judo. The major influences on the LTAD approach, including deliberate practice, are reviewed along with recent evidence that leads to questions about the usefulness of the LTAD model. While Judo Canada has attempted to implement this model in its program to train coaches, there remains a great deal of incongruity between the LTAD approach and the pedagogy that often characterizes judo.

Physical Fitness Percentiles of German Children Aged 9-12 Years: Findings from a Longitudinal Study.

BackgroundGenerating percentile values is helpful for the identification of children with specific fitness characteristics (i.e., low or high fitness level) to set appropriate fitness goals (i.e., fitness/health promotion and/or long-term youth athlete development). Thus, the aim of this longitudinal study was to assess physical fitness development in healthy children aged 9–12 years and to compute sex- and age-specific percentile values.MethodsTwo-hundred and forty children (88 girls, 152 boys) participated in this study and were tested for their physical fitness. Physical fitness was assessed using the 50-m sprint test (i.e., speed), the 1-kg ball push test, the triple hop test (i.e., upper- and lower- extremity muscular power), the stand-and-reach test (i.e., flexibility), the star run test (i.e., agility), and the 9-min run test (i.e., endurance). Age- and sex-specific percentile values (i.e., P10 to P90) were generated using the Lambda, Mu, and Sigma method. Adjusted (for change in body weight, height, and baseline performance) age- and sex-differences as well as the interactions thereof were expressed by calculating effect sizes (Cohen’s d).ResultsSignificant main effects of Age were detected for all physical fitness tests (d = 0.40–1.34), whereas significant main effects of Sex were found for upper-extremity muscular power (d = 0.55), flexibility (d = 0.81), agility (d = 0.44), and endurance (d = 0.32) only. Further, significant Sex by Age interactions were observed for upper-extremity muscular power (d = 0.36), flexibility (d = 0.61), and agility (d = 0.27) in favor of girls. Both, linear and curvilinear shaped curves were found for percentile values across the fitness tests. Accelerated (curvilinear) improvements were observed for upper-extremity muscular power (boys: 10–11 yrs; girls: 9–11 yrs), agility (boys: 9–10 yrs; girls: 9–11 yrs), and endurance (boys: 9–10 yrs; girls: 9–10 yrs). Tabulated percentiles for the 9-min run test indicated that running distances between 1,407–1,507 m, 1,479–1,597 m, 1,423–1,654 m, and 1,433–1,666 m in 9- to 12-year-old boys and 1,262–1,362 m, 1,329–1,434 m, 1,392–1,501 m, and 1,415–1,526 m in 9- to 12-year-old girls correspond to a “medium” fitness level (i.e., P40 to P60) in this population.ConclusionsThe observed differences in physical fitness development between boys and girls illustrate that age- and sex-specific maturational processes might have an impact on the fitness status of healthy children. Our statistical analyses revealed linear (e.g., lower-extremity muscular power) and curvilinear (e.g., agility) models of fitness improvement with age which is indicative of timed and capacity-specific fitness development pattern during childhood. Lastly, the provided age- and sex-specific percentile values can be used by coaches for talent identification and by teachers for rating/grading of children’s motor performance.

Coaches’ Adoption and Implementation of Sport Canada’s Long-Term Athlete Development Model

This work explores the adoption and implementation of Sport Canada’s long-term athlete development (LTAD) model by coaches and tries to understand the barriers to and enablers of these processes. LTAD adoption was studied in 14 coaches (5 female, 9 male) in seven sports while implementation was assessed among 10 different coaches (2 female, 8 male) from nine sports. Semistructured interviews ascertained coaches’ perceptions of and experiences with the LTAD model in their coaching practice. Coaches adhered to the global vision and general principles of LTAD. However, several barriers to LTAD adoption and implementation were identified. A mismatch between the model’s long-term and the short-term visions of results in sport was perceived as deterrent to LTAD adoption and implementation. Coaches involved in early development sports mentioned a lack of compatibility of LTAD with the demands of their sport. Coaches also perceived complexity in LTAD athlete’s developmental stage determination and the identification of “windows of opportunity” or critical periods. These barriers should be addressed to complete diffusion of LTAD among Canadian coaches.

Age of Peak Competitive Performance of Elite Athletes: A Systematic Review.

Knowledge of the age at which elite athletes achieve peak performance could provide important information for long-term athlete development programmes, event selection and strategic decisions regarding resource allocation. The objective of this study was to systematically review published estimates of age of peak performance of elite athletes in the twenty-first century. We searched SPORTDiscus, PubMed and Google Scholar for studies providing estimates of age of peak performance. Here we report estimates as means only for top (international senior) athletes. Estimates were assigned to three event-type categories on the basis of the predominant attributes required for success in the given event (explosive power/sprint, endurance, mixed/skill) and then plotted by event duration for analysis of trends. For both sexes, linear trends reasonably approximated the relationships between event duration and estimates of age of peak performance for explosive power/sprint events and for endurance events. In explosive power/sprint events, estimates decreased with increasing event duration, ranging from ~27years (athletics throws, ~1-5s) to ~20years (swimming, ~21-245s). Conversely, estimates for endurance events increased with increasing event duration, ranging from ~20years (swimming, ~2-15min) to ~39years (ultra-distance cycling, ~27-29h). There was little difference in estimates of peak age for these event types between men and women. Estimations of the age of peak performance for athletes specialising in specific events and of event durations that may best suit talent identification of athletes can be obtained from the equations of the linear trends. There were insufficient data to investigate trends for mixed/skill events. Differences in the attributes required for success in different sporting events likely contribute to the wide range of peak-performance ages of elite athletes. Understanding the relationships between age of peak competitive performance and event duration should be useful for tracking athlete progression and talent identification.

Indigenous Long-Term Athlete & Participant Development Model

Objectives : The primary objective of this paper is to discuss the Indigenous Long-Term Athlete and Participant Development model (LTAPD) the implications for sport and lifelong active living. Discussion: The Indigenous LTAPD was created by the Aboriginal Physical Activity & Cultural Circle building upon Canada’s general LTAPD. The Indigenous LTAPD includes nine stages for the development of physical activity for life. This model is designed to reflect the shared values of Indigenous peoples providing a positive environment for ALL (regardless of ability or sex). Conclusions: The Indigenous LTAPD model has great potential incorporating the traditional values and ways of Aboriginal peoples so that ALL can achieve the benefits of sport, recreation, and physical activity participation.

USA Hockey’s American Development Model: Changing the Coaching and Player Development Paradigm

Despite significant advances in the development and performance of United States-born hockey players since the 1970s, room for improvement remains, especially when one compares the U.S. to its top international competition, much of which succeeds at the Olympic and World Championship level with dramatically smaller pools of talent from which to assemble its elite teams. USA Hockey sought to address this performance discrepancy and fulfill the full potential of American hockey through creation and implementation of its American Development Model (ADM), a nationwide reinvention of how hockey was taught at the grassroots level. Based on long-term athlete development principles and founded on sport science and proven child development best practices, the ADM represents a revolution in athlete and coach development. This paper explores the research that helped create USA Hockey’s ADM, along with the initiative’s methodology, execution and early outcomes.

Comparing the practices of US Soccer against a global model for integrated development of mass and high-performance sport

This study examines the current state of soccer in the USA against an ideal-type model for developing high-performance sport integrated with mass participation. A questionnaire was developed for the following elements of the model: talent identification and development; advanced athlete support; training centers; competitions; intellectual services; partnerships with supporting agencies; and balanced and integrated funding and structures of mass and elite sport. Survey questions were validated by 12 international experts including executives from sport governing bodies, soccer coaches, academicians, and administrators. To determine the areas for improvement, 125 coaches completed the questionnaire. Additionally, possible advancements were identified through semi-structured discussions with seven top soccer administrators. Results suggest possible enhancements at the macro-level (e.g. integrated partnership efforts particularly among sport governing bodies, governments, and lotteries), meso-level (e.g. comprehensive coach education and community training centers), and micro-level (e.g. uniform national conditions for long-term athlete development).

Long-term athlete development

Long-term athlete development

Disability as a Path to Spiritual Enlightenment: An Ethnographic Account of the Significance of Religion in Paralympic Sport

This article explores the importance of spirituality amidst the culture that surrounds high performance athletes who have acquired impairments. In so doing, it highlights the way in which spirituality and religion may be used as a vehicle for dealing with issues of re-embodiment and how this might impact long-term athlete well-being. Featuring ethnographic data collected over the course of a number of Paralympic Games, the essay explores the act of re-embodiment and how being “re-born” in line with various religious frameworks is something to which elite athletes with a disability may turn in order to make sense of their place in the world. Drawing on literature from the field of religious studies as well as a critical theorization of disability, the essay sheds light on the relationship between sport and religion using the “imperfect” bodies of Paralympians as a catalyst to explore the importance and meaning of spirituality in the everyday existence of sportspeople with disabilities.

Training for Sustained Performance: Moving Toward Long-Term Musician Development

Success in the performing arts, like sports, is dependent upon the acquisition and consistent use of a diverse range of skills. In sports, an understanding of safe and effective use of the body is required to facilitate long-term involvement in that activity. In order to assist athletes to attain their performance goals, and ensure healthy and sustained involvement, long-term athlete development (LTAD) models have been devised and adapted by professional sporting bodies throughout the world. LTAD models emphasize the intellectual, emotional, and social development of the athlete, encourage long-term participation in physical activities, and enable participants to improve their overall health and well-being and increase their life-long participation in physical activity. At present there is no such long-term development model for musicians. Yet musicians must cope with a multitude of career-related physical and mental demands, and performance-related injuries and career burnout are rife within the profession. Despite this, musicians' training rarely addresses such issues and musicians are left largely to learn about them through either chance or accrued experience. This paper discusses key concepts and recommendations in LTAD models, together with music-specific research highlighting the need for the development of a comprehensive long-term approach to musicians' training. The results of a survey of existing music training programs are compared to recommendations and the different development stages in LTAD models. Finally, implementation science is introduced as a methodological option for identifying how best to communicate the body of evidence-based knowledge concerning healthy and effective music-making to young student musicians.

The state of women’s rugby union in South Africa: Recommendations for long-term participant development

Several international rugby unions, including the South African Rugby Union, have adopted the long-term athlete development (LTAD) model, which is based on physiological principles that categorise players into specific stages of development. The original model proposes different age categories for boys and girls within each specific stage of development. This review: (i) discusses the current state of junior female rugby in South Africa; (ii) discusses the evidence for gender-specific differences in the LTAD model; and (iii) recommends a future strategy for LTAD within female rugby in South Africa, considering the current approaches of other international unions.

The state of women’s rugby union in South Africa: Recommendations for long-term participant development

Several international rugby unions, including the South African Rugby Union, have adopted the long-term athlete development (LTAD) model, which is based on physiological principles that categorise players into specific stages of development. The original model proposes different age categories for boys and girls within each specific stage of development. This review: (i) discusses the current state of junior female rugby in South Africa; (ii) discusses the evidence for gender-specific differences in the LTAD model; and (iii) recommends a future strategy for LTAD within female rugby in South Africa, considering the current approaches of other international unions.

The state of women’s rugby union in South Africa: Recommendations for long-term participant development

Several international rugby unions, including the South African Rugby Union, have adopted the long-term athlete development (LTAD) model, which is based on physiological principles that categorise players into specific stages of development. The original model proposes different age categories for boys and girls within each specific stage of development. This review: (i) discusses the current state of junior female rugby in South Africa; (ii) discusses the evidence for gender-specific differences in the LTAD model; and (iii) recommends a future strategy for LTAD within female rugby in South Africa, considering the current approaches of other international unions.

Iniciação desportiva, actividades prévias e especialização no treino de futsal em Portugal

O presente estudo pretende analisar e caracterizar a preparação desportiva em longo prazo dos melhores jogadores de futsal portugueses. Para alcançar este objetivo foram realizados dois estudos distintos. O estudo 1 permitiu averiguar o percurso desportivo de jogadores séniores proveniente de diferentes níveis competitivos, elite (n=60), intermédio (n=160) e regional (151). Por sua vez, o estudo 2 comparou o envolvimento desportivo inicial dos melhores jogadores portugueses (n=24), com aquele desenvolvido por jogadores mais jovens, selecionados para representar as equipas distritais (n=270) e contemplou, adicionalmente, uma análise entre sexos. Todos os participantes preencheram um questionário previamente validado, que fornece informações de carácter retrospectivo sobre as atividades desportivas experiências ao longo da sua carreira. Os resultados demonstraram que os melhores jogadores se distinguem dos jogadores de níveis competitivos inferiores pela dedicação mais precoce ao treino desportivo e especificamente ao futsal, facto que é reforçado tanto pelo acréscimo progressivo do volume de treino semanal como na duração das épocas desportivas. Estes aspectos emergem como fatores discriminantes neste processo, não deixando de referenciar o contributo da prática diversificada no percurso dos melhores jogadores portugueses de futsal.

10-Year Changes in Upper Body Strength and Power in Elite Professional Rugby League Players—The Effect of Training Age, Stage, and Content

The purpose of this investigation was to observe changes in maximal upper body strength and power across a 10-year period in professional athletes who were experienced resistance trainers. Six professional rugby league players were observed with test data reported according to 2 important training stages in their professional careers. The first stage (1996-1998) monitored the changes as the subjects strived to establish themselves as elite professionals in their sport. The remaining test data are from the latter stage (2000-2006), which is characterized by a longer competition schedule and shorter periods devoted to improving physical preparation. The changes in upper body strength, assessed by the 1 repetition maximum bench press and mean maximum power during bench press throws with various barbell resistances of 40-80 kg, were assessed by effect size (ES) and smallest worthwhile change (SWC) statistics. Large increases in strength and power of approximately 22-23% were reported across the 10-year period, however, only small changes (as determined by ES) in strength or power occurred after year 2000 till 2006. This result of only small changes in strength or power despite 6 years of intense resistance training was attributed to 3 main factors. Key among them are the possible existence of a "strength ceiling" for experienced resistance trainers, the Long-term Athlete Development model, and possibly an inappropriate volume of strength-endurance training from 2004 to 2005. The fact that an SWC in strength and power occurred in the year after the cessation of strength-endurance training suggests that training program manipulation is still an influencing factor in continuing strength and power gains in experienced resistance trainers.