Long-lasting Protective Immunity Research Articles

Live-attenuated virus vaccine defective in RNAi suppression induces rapid protection in neonatal and adult mice lacking mature B and T cells

Global control of infectious diseases depends on the continuous development and deployment of diverse vaccination strategies. Currently available live-attenuated and killed virus vaccines typically take a week or longer to activate specific protection by the adaptive immunity. The mosquito-transmitted Nodamura virus (NoV) is attenuated in mice by mutations that prevent expression of the B2 viral suppressor of RNA interference (VSR) and consequently, drastically enhance in vivo production of the virus-targeting small-interfering RNAs. We reported recently that 2 d after immunization with live-attenuated VSR-disabled NoV (NoVΔB2), neonatal mice become fully protected against lethal NoV challenge and develop no detectable infection. Using Rag1-/- mice that produce no mature B and T lymphocytes as a model, here we examined the hypothesis that adaptive immunity is dispensable for the RNAi-based protective immunity activated by NoVΔB2 immunization. We show that immunization of both neonatal and adult Rag1-/- mice with live but not killed NoVΔB2 induces full protection against NoV challenge at 2 or 14 d postimmunization. Moreover, NoVΔB2-induced protective antiviral immunity is virus-specific and remains effective in adult Rag1-/- mice 42 and 90 d after a single-shot immunization. We conclude that immunization with the live-attenuated VSR-disabled RNA virus vaccine activates rapid and long-lasting protective immunity against lethal challenges by a distinct mechanism independent of the adaptive immunity mediated by B and T cells. Future studies are warranted to determine whether additional animal and human viruses attenuated by VSR inactivation induce similar protective immunity in healthy and adaptive immunity-compromised individuals.

Impact of Protein Nanoparticle Shape on the Immunogenicity of Antimicrobial Glycoconjugate Vaccines.

Protein self-assembling nanoparticles (NPs) can be used as carriers for antigen delivery to increase vaccine immunogenicity. NPs mimic the majority of invading pathogens, inducing a robust adaptive immune response and long-lasting protective immunity. In this context, we investigated the potential of NPs of different sizes and shapes-ring-, rod-like, and spherical particles-as carriers for bacterial oligosaccharides by evaluating in murine models the role of these parameters on the immune response. Oligosaccharides from Neisseria meningitidis type W capsular polysaccharide were conjugated to ring-shape or nanotubes of engineered Pseudomonas aeruginosa Hemolysin-corregulated protein 1 (Hcp1cc) and to spherical Helicobacter pylori ferritin. Glycoconjugated NPs were characterized using advanced technologies such as High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC), Asymmetric Flow-Field Flow fractionation (AF4), and Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to verify their correct assembly, dimensions, and glycosylation degrees. Our results showed that spherical ferritin was able to induce the highest immune response in mice against the saccharide antigen compared to the other glycoconjugate NPs, with increased bactericidal activity compared to benchmark MenW-CRM197. We conclude that shape is a key attribute over size to be considered for glycoconjugate vaccine development.

Targeting two radiation-induced immunosuppressive pathways to improve the efficacy of normofractionated radiation therapy in a preclinical colorectal cancer model

Purpose We have previously demonstrated in a murine colorectal cancer model that normofractionated RT (normoRT: 18 × 2 Gy) induced MDSC infiltration and PD-L1 expression, while hypofractionated RT (hypoRT: 3 × 8 Gy) induced Treg. Here, we wanted to assess whether the association of normoRT with treatments that target two radiation-induced immunosuppressive pathways (MDSC and PD-L1) could improve tumor control. Materials and methods Subcutaneous tumors were induced using colon tumor cells (CT26) in immunocompetent mice (BALB/c) and were treated with RT alone (18 × 2 Gy or 3 × 8 Gy), or concomitantly with 5-Fluorouracil (5FU) (10 mg/kg) to deplete MDSC, and/or anti-PD-L1 (10 mg/kg). We assessed the impact of these combinations on tumor growth and immune cells infiltration by flow cytometry. In addition, we performed tumor rechallenge experiments and IFN-γ ELISpots to study the long-term memory response. Results Even though tumor growth was significantly delayed in the RT + 5FU compared to 5FU and untreated groups (p < .05), there was no significant difference between RT + 5FU (CRT) and RT alone. The rate of MDSC increased significantly 1 week after the end of normoRT (8.09% ± 1.03%, p < .05) and decreased with the addition of 5FU (3.39% ± 0.69%, p < .05). PD-L1 expressing tumor cells were increased after treatment. Adding anti-PD-L1 significantly delayed tumor growth, achieved the highest complete response rate, and induced a long-lasting protective specific anti-tumor immunity. Conclusions These results tend to demonstrate the interest of inhibiting two radiation-induced immunosuppressive mechanisms. In patients, the combination of normoRT with 5FU is already the standard of care in locally advanced rectal cancer. Adding an anti-PD-L1 to this treatment could show promising results.

Distinct roles of vaccine-induced SARS-CoV-2-specific neutralizing antibodies and T cells in protection and disease

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)-specific neutralizing antibodies (NAbs) lack cross-reactivity between SARS-CoV species and variants and fail to mediate long-term protection against infection. The maintained protection against severe disease and death by vaccination suggests a role for cross-reactive Tcells. We generated vaccines containing sequences from the spike or receptor binding domain, the membrane and/or nucleoprotein that induced only Tcells, or Tcells and NAbs, to understand their individual roles. In three models with homologous or heterologous challenge, high levels of vaccine-induced SARS-CoV-2 NAbs protected against neither infection nor mild histological disease but conferred rapid viral control limiting the histological damage. With no or low levels of NAbs, vaccine-primed Tcells, in mice mainly CD8+ Tcells, partially controlled viral replication and promoted NAb recall responses. Tcells failed to protect against histological damage, presumably because of viral spread and subsequent Tcell-mediated killing. Neither vaccine- nor infection-induced NAbs seem to provide long-lasting protective immunity against SARS-CoV-2. Thus, a more realistic approach for universal SARS-CoV-2 vaccines should be to aim for broadly cross-reactive NAbs in combination with long-lasting highly cross-reactive Tcells. Long-lived cross-reactive Tcells are likely key to prevent severe disease and fatalities during current and future pandemics.

IL-10-expressing CAR T cells resist dysfunction and mediate durable clearance of solid tumors and metastases.

The success of chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell therapy in treating several hematopoietic malignancies has been difficult to replicate in solid tumors, in part because of T cell exhaustion and eventually dysfunction. To counter T cell dysfunction in the tumor microenvironment, we metabolically armored CAR T cells by engineering them to secrete interleukin-10 (IL-10). We show that IL-10 CAR T cells preserve intact mitochondrial structure and function in the tumor microenvironment and increase oxidative phosphorylation in a mitochondrial pyruvate carrier-dependent manner. IL-10 secretion promoted proliferation and effector function of CAR T cells, leading to complete regression of established solid tumors and metastatic cancers across several cancer types in syngeneic and xenograft mouse models, including colon cancer, breast cancer, melanoma and pancreatic cancer. IL-10 CAR T cells also induced stem cell-like memory responses in lymphoid organs that imparted durable protection against tumor rechallenge. Our results establish a generalizable approach to counter CAR T cell dysfunction through metabolic armoring, leading to solid tumor eradication and long-lasting immune protection.

Prevalence of Serum Antibody Titers against Core Vaccine Antigens in Italian Cats.

Feline core vaccines strongly recommended for all cats are against Feline panleukopenia virus (FPV), Felid herpesvirus type 1 (FeHV-1), and Feline calicivirus (FCV), but cats can be classified as low- and high-risk based on their lifestyle. The aim of this study was to determine the actual seroprotection against FPV, FeHV-1, and FCV in a large cohort of Italian cats by using the VacciCheck test. A total of 740 cats (567 owned and 173 stray cats; 435 vaccinated and 305 unvaccinated) were analyzed for Protective Antibody Titers (PATs). Differences related to origin, sex, age, breed, FIV/FeLV status, health status, and time elapsed since last vaccination were evaluated. Less than half of the entire cohort (36.4%) had PATs for all three diseases simultaneously, increasing to 48.6% if weak positive values were also considered and 50.3% when considering only the 435 vaccinated cats. Particularly, antibodies were detected against FCV, FPV, and FeHV-1 at protective titers (PATs) in 78.6%, 68.1, and 49.1% of the cats, respectively. In general, owned, neutered, and adult FIV- and/or FeLV-negative cats were the most protected categories, even if not always for the three viruses. Most cats maintained high PATs for 3 years or longer after vaccination against FPV and FCV but not FeHV-1. Long-lasting protective immunity persisted for many years after the last vaccination (more than 18 years in the oldest cats). Nevertheless, since not all cats were protected after so many years and for all pathogens, checking protection via antibody titration could be the best choice to prevent immunity breakdowns. The discussion also focuses on the reliability of antibody titration for the two URTD (upper respiratory tract disease) viruses which, unlike for FPV, is not widely accepted as a valid index of protection.

Potency and durability of T and B cell immune responses after homologous and heterologous vector delivery of a trimer-stabilized, membrane-displayed HIV-1 clade ConC Env protein.

The generation of an HIV-1 vaccine able to induce long-lasting protective immunity remains a main challenge. Here, we aimed to modify next-generation soluble, prefusion-stabilized, close-to-native, glycan-engineered clade C gp140 envelope (Env) trimers (sC23v4 KIKO and ConCv5 KIKO) for optimal display on the cell surface following homologous or heterologous vector delivery. A combination of the following modifications scored best regarding the preservation of closed, native-like Env trimer conformation and antigenicity when using a panel of selected broadly neutralizing (bnAb) and non-neutralizing (nnAb) monoclonal antibodies for flow cytometry: i) replacing the natural cleavage site with a native flexible linker and introducing a single amino acid substitution to prevent CD4 binding (*), ii) fusing a heterologous VSV-G-derived transmembrane moiety to the gp140 C-terminus, and iii) deleting six residues proximal to the membrane. When delivering membrane-tethered sC23v4 KIKO* and ConCv5 KIKO* via DNA, VSV-GP, and NYVAC vectors, the two native-like Env trimers provide differential antigenicity profiles. Whereas such patterns were largely consistent among the different vectors for either Env trimer, the membrane-tethered ConCv5 KIKO* trimer adopted a more closed and native-like structure than sC23v4 KIKO*. In immunized mice, VSV-GP and NYVAC vectors expressing the membrane-tethered ConCv5 KIKO* administered in prime/boost combination were the most effective regimens for the priming of Env-specific CD4 T cells among all tested combinations. The subsequent booster administration of trimeric ConCv5 KIKO* Env protein preserved the T cell activation levels between groups. The evaluation of the HIV-1-specific humoral responses induced in the different immunization groups after protein boosts showed that the various prime/boost protocols elicited broad and potent antibody responses, preferentially of a Th1-associated IgG2a subclass, and that the obtained antibody levels remained high at the memory phase. In summary, we provide a feasible strategy to display multiple copies of native-like Env trimers on the cell surface, which translates into efficient priming of sustained CD4+ T cell responses after vector delivery as well as broad, potent, and sustained antibody responses following booster immunizations with the homologous, prefusion-stabilized, close-to-native ConCv5 KIKO* gp140 Env trimer.

A CAF01-adjuvanted whole asexual blood-stage liposomal malaria vaccine induces a CD4+ T-cell-dependent strain-transcending protective immunity in rodent models.

Malaria is a devastating disease that has claimed many lives, especially children <5 years of age in Sub-Saharan Africa, as documented in World Malaria Reports by WHO. Even though vector control and chemoprevention tools have helped with elimination efforts in some, if not all, endemic areas, these efforts have been hampered by serious issues (including drug and insecticide resistance and disruption to social cohesion caused by the COVID-19 pandemic). Development of an effective malaria vaccine is the alternative preventative tool in the fight against malaria. Vaccines save millions of lives each year and have helped in elimination and/or eradication of global diseases. Development of a highly efficacious malaria vaccine that will ensure long-lasting protective immunity will be a "game-changing" prevention strategy to finally eradicate the disease. Such a vaccine will need to counteract the significant obstacles that have been hampering subunit vaccine development to date, including antigenic polymorphism, sub-optimal immunogenicity, and waning vaccine efficacy.

A next-generation intranasal trivalent MMS vaccine induces durable and broad protection against SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern

As SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern (VoCs) that evade immunity continue to emerge, next-generation adaptable COVID-19 vaccines which protect the respiratory tract and provide broader, more effective, and durable protection are urgently needed. Here, we have developed one such approach, a highly efficacious, intranasally delivered, trivalent measles-mumps-SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) protein (MMS) vaccine candidate that induces robust systemic and mucosal immunity with broad protection. This vaccine candidate is based on three components of the MMR vaccine, a measles virus Edmonston and the two mumps virus strains [Jeryl Lynn 1 (JL1) and JL2] that are known to provide safe, effective, and long-lasting protective immunity. The six proline-stabilized prefusion S protein (preS-6P) genes for ancestral SARS-CoV-2 WA1 and two important SARS-CoV-2 VoCs (Delta and Omicron BA.1) were each inserted into one of these three viruses which were then combined into a trivalent "MMS" candidate vaccine. Intranasal immunization of MMS in IFNAR1-/- mice induced a strong SARS-CoV-2-specific serum IgG response, cross-variant neutralizing antibodies, mucosal IgA, and systemic and tissue-resident T cells. Immunization of golden Syrian hamsters with MMS vaccine induced similarly high levels of antibodies that efficiently neutralized SARS-CoV-2 VoCs and provided broad and complete protection against challenge with any of these VoCs. This MMS vaccine is an efficacious, broadly protective next-generation COVID-19 vaccine candidate, which is readily adaptable to new variants, built on a platform with a 50-y safety record that also protects against measles and mumps.

Malaria Vaccines: Progress to Date.

Malaria is a mosquito-borne disease caused by protozoan parasites of the genus Plasmodium. Despite significant declines in malaria-attributable morbidity and mortality over the last two decades, it remains a major public health burden in many countries. This underscores the critical need for improved strategies to prevent, treat and control malaria if we are to ultimately progress towards the eradication of this disease. Ideally, this will include the development and deployment of a highly effective malaria vaccine that is able to induce long-lasting protective immunity. There are many malaria vaccine candidates in development, with more than a dozen of these in clinical development. RTS,S/AS01 (also known as Mosquirix) is the most advanced malaria vaccine and was shown to have modest efficacy against clinical malaria in phase III trials in 5- to 17-month-old infants. Following pilot implementation trials, the World Health Organisation has recommended it for use in Africa in young children who are most at risk of infection with P. falciparum, the deadliest of the human malaria parasites. It is well recognised that more effective malaria vaccines are needed. In this review, we discuss malaria vaccine candidates that have progressed into clinical evaluation and highlight the most advanced candidates: Sanaria's irradiated sporozoite vaccine (PfSPZ Vaccine), the chemoattenuated sporozoite vaccine (PfSPZ-CVac), RTS,S/AS01 and the novel malaria vaccine candidate, R21, which displayed promising, high-level efficacy in a recent small phase IIb trial in Africa.

Immunization with Multiple Virulence Factors Provides Maternal and Neonatal Protection against Group B Streptococcus Serotypes.

Group B streptococcus (GBS) commonly colonizes the vaginal tract and is a leading cause of life-threatening neonatal infections and adverse pregnancy outcomes. No effective vaccine is clinically available. Conserved bacterial virulence factors, including those of GBS, have been employed as vaccine components. We investigated serotype-independent protection against GBS by intranasal immunization with six conserved GBS virulence factors (GBSV6). GBSV6 induced systemic and vaginal antibodies and T cell responses in mice. The immunity reduced mouse mortality and vaginal colonization by various GBS serotypes and protected newborn mice of immunized dams against GBS challenge. Intranasal GBSV6 immunization also provided long-lasting protective immunity and had advantages over intramuscular GBSV6 immunization regarding restricting vaginal GBS colonization. Our findings indicate that intranasal immunization targeting multiple conserved GBS virulence factors induces serotype-independent immunity, which protects against GBS infection systemically and vaginally in dams and prevents newborn death. The study presents valuable strategies for GBS vaccine development.

Cyclodextrin in Vaccines: Enhancing Efficacy and Stability

Cyclodextrins, a family of cyclic oligosaccharides, have received considerable interest in the field of pharmaceuticals due to their unique molecular structure and versatile properties. In the context of vaccines, cyclodextrins can effectively encapsulate antigens, ensuring their protection from degradation and improving their immunogenicity. Cyclodextrins offer stability advantages to vaccines by preventing the degradation of labile vaccine components during storage and transportation. Furthermore, cyclodextrins can serve as adjuvants, potentiating the immune response triggered by vaccines. Their unique structure and interaction with the immune system enhance the recognition of antigens by immune cells, leading to an improved activation of both innate and adaptive immune responses. This adjuvant effect contributes to the development of robust and long-lasting immune protection against targeted pathogens. Owing to the distinctive attributes inherent to nanoparticles, their integration into vaccine formulations has assumed an imperative role. Through the encapsulation of vaccine antigens/adjuvants within cyclodextrin nanoparticles, the potency and stability of vaccines can be notably enhanced. In particular, the capacity of amphiphilic cyclodextrins to form nanoparticles through self-assembly without surfactants or co-solvents is a captivating prospect for their application as carrier systems for antigens. In conclusion, cyclodextrins present a promising platform for enhancing the efficacy and stability of vaccines. Their ability to encapsulate antigens, stabilize labile vaccine components and act as adjuvants demonstrates their potential to revolutionize vaccine formulation and delivery. Further research and development in this field will facilitate the translation of cyclodextrin-based vaccine technologies into practical and impactful immunization strategies, ultimately benefiting global health and disease prevention.

Recombinant BoHV-5 glycoprotein (rgD5) elicits long-lasting protective immunity in cattle

BoHV-5 is a worldwide distributed pathogen usually associated with a lethal neurological disease in dairy and beef cattle resulting in important economic losses due to the cattle industry. Using recombinant gD5, we evaluated the long-duration humoral immunity of the recombinant vaccines in a cattle model. Here we report that two doses of intramuscular immunization, particularly with the rgD5ISA vaccine, induce long-lasting antibody responses. Recombinant gD5 antigen elicited tightly mRNA transcription of the Bcl6 and the chemokine receptor CXCR5 which mediate memory B cells and long-lived plasma cells in germinal centers. In addition, using an in-house indirect ELISA we observed higher and earlier responses of rgD5-specific IgG antibody and the upregulation of mRNA transcription of IL2, IL4, IL10, IL15, and IFN-γ in rgD5 vaccinated cattle, indicating a mixed immune response. We further show that rgD5 immunization protects against both BoHV −1 and −5. Our findings indicate that the rgD5-based vaccine represents an effective vaccine strategy to induce an efficient control of herpesviruses.

Soluble ORF2 protein enhances HEV replication and induces long-lasting antibody response and protective immunity in vivo.

The HEV is a small positive-sense RNA virus that encodes a cytoplasmic form of the capsid protein (ORF2c), essential for virion structure, and a secreted glycosylated form (ORF2s) that accumulates at high titer in serum and can mask neutralizing epitopes. We explored the contribution of ORF2s to HEV replication and its role in generating antibodies against ORF2 in a nonhuman primate model. We used a recombinant HEV genotype 3 variant that does not express ORF2s due to the introduction of stop codons (ORF2s mut ). Rhesus macaques (RMs) were given intrahepatic injections of infectious wildtype HEV (ORF2s wt ) RNA or a variant lacking ORF2s expression (ORF2s mut ). The replication of the ORF2s mut virus was delayed by ~2 weeks compared with ORF2s wt , and peak titers were nearly tenfold lower. Reversions of the 3 mutations that blocked ORF2s expression were not detected in the ORF2s mut genomes, indicating genetic stability. However, serum antibodies against ORF2 were transiently detected in RMs infected with ORF2s mut , whereas they were long-lasting in RMs infected with ORF2s wt . Moreover, RMs infected with ORF2s mut were more susceptible to reinfection, as evidenced by the viral RNA detected in fecal samples and the expansion of HEV-specific CD8 + T cells. These findings indicate that ORF2s may be dispensable for viral replication in vivo but is required for long-lived antibody-mediated responses that protect against HEV re-exposure.

Molecular Engineering of NIR-II/IIb Emitting AIEgen for Multimodal Imaging-Guided Photo-Immunotherapy.

In view of the great challenges related to the complexity and heterogeneity of tumors, efficient combination therapy is an ideal strategy for eliminating primary tumors and inhibiting distant tumors. A novel aggregation-induced emission (AIE) phototherapeutic agent called T-TBBTD is developed, which features a donor-acceptor-donor (D-A-D) structure, enhanced twisted molecule conformation, and prolonged second near-infrared window (NIR-II) emission. The multimodal imaging function of the molecule has significance for its treatment time window and excellent photothermal/photodynamic performance for multimode therapy. The precise molecular structure and versatility provide prospects for molecular therapy for anti-tumor applications. Fluorescence imaging in the NIR-II window offers advantages with enhanced spatial resolution, temporal resolution, and penetration depth. The prepared AIE@R837 NPs also have controllable performance for antitumor photo-immunotherapy. Following local photo-irradiation, AIE@R837 NPs generate abundant heat, and 1 O2 directly kills tumor cells, induces immunogenic cell death (ICD) as a photo-therapeutic effect, and releases R837, which enhances the synergistic effect of antigen presentation and contributes to the long-lasting protective antitumor immunity. A bilateral 4T1 tumor model revealed that this photo-immunotherapy can eliminate primary tumors. More importantly, it has a significant inhibitory effect on distant tumor growth. Therefore, this method can provide a new strategy for tumor therapy.

Plasmodium-encoded murine IL-6 impairs liver stage infection and elicits long-lasting sterilizing immunity.

Plasmodium sporozoites (SPZ) inoculated by Anopheles mosquitoes into the skin of the mammalian host migrate to the liver before infecting hepatocytes. Previous work demonstrated that early production of IL-6 in the liver is detrimental for the parasite growth, contributing to the acquisition of a long-lasting immune protection after immunization with live attenuated parasites. Considering that IL-6 as a critical pro-inflammatory signal, we explored a novel approach whereby the parasite itself encodes for the murine IL-6 gene. We generated transgenic P. berghei parasites that express murine IL-6 during liver stage development. Though IL-6 transgenic SPZ developed into exo-erythrocytic forms in hepatocytes in vitro and in vivo, these parasites were not capable of inducing a blood stage infection in mice. Furthermore, immunization of mice with transgenic IL-6-expressing P. berghei SPZ elicited a long-lasting CD8+ T cell-mediated protective immunity against a subsequent infectious SPZ challenge. Collectively, this study demonstrates that parasite-encoded IL-6 attenuates parasite virulence with abortive liver stage of Plasmodium infection, forming the basis of a novel suicide vaccine strategy to elicit protective antimalarial immunity.

Construction and validation of a multi-epitope in silico vaccine model for lymphatic filariasis by targeting Brugia malayi: a reverse vaccinology approach

BackgroundLymphatic filariasis (LF), often referred to as elephantiasis, has been identified as one of the 17 neglected tropical diseases by the World Health Organization. Currently, there are no vaccines available to treat this infection in humans. Therefore, with the objective of devising a novel preventive measure, we exploited an immunoinformatics approach to design a multi-epitope-based subunit vaccine for LF, that can elicit a variety of immune responses within the host.In this study, different B cell, TC cell, and TH cell-binding epitopes were screened from the antigenic proteins of Brugia malayi and they were passed through several immunological filters to determine the optimal epitopes.ResultsAs a result, 15 CD8+, 3 CD4+, and 3 B cell epitopes were found to be prominent, antigenic, non-toxic, immunogenic and non-allergenic. The presence of conformational B cell epitopes and cytokine-inducing epitopes confirmed the humoral and cell-mediated immune response that would be triggered by the constructed vaccine model.Following that, the selected epitopes and TLR-4-specific adjuvant were ligated by appropriate peptide linkers to finalize the vaccine construct. Protein–protein docking of the vaccine structure with the TLR4 receptor predicted strong binding affinity and hence putatively confirms its ability to elicit an immune response. Further, the efficiency of the vaccine candidate to provide a long-lasting protective immunity was assessed by in silico immune simulation. The reverse translated vaccine sequence was also virtually cloned in the pET28a (+) plasmid after the optimization of the gene sequence.ConclusionSo taken together, by monitoring the overall in silico assessment, we hypothesize that our engineered peptide vaccine could be a viable prophylactic approach in the development of vaccines against the threat of human lymphatic filariasis.Graphical

Development of Next Generation Vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 and Variants of Concern.

SARS-CoV-2 has caused the COVID-19 pandemic, with over 673 million infections and 6.85 million deaths globally. Novel mRNA and viral-vectored vaccines were developed and licensed for global immunizations under emergency approval. They have demonstrated good safety and high protective efficacy against the SARS-CoV-2 Wuhan strain. However, the emergence of highly infectious and transmissible variants of concern (VOCs) such as Omicron was associated with considerable reductions in the protective efficacy of the current vaccines. The development of next-generation vaccines that could confer broad protection against both the SARS-CoV-2 Wuhan strain and VOCs is urgently needed. A bivalent mRNA vaccine encoding the Spike proteins of both the SARS-CoV-2 Wuhan strain and the Omicron variant has been constructed and approved by the US FDA. However, mRNA vaccines are associated with instability and require an extremely low temperature (-80 °C) for storage and transportation. They also require complex synthesis and multiple chromatographic purifications. Peptide-based next-generation vaccines could be developed by relying on in silico predictions to identify peptides specifying highly conserved B, CD4+ and CD8+ T cell epitopes to elicit broad and long-lasting immune protection. These epitopes were validated in animal models and in early phase clinical trials to demonstrate immunogenicity and safety. Next-generation peptide vaccine formulations could be developed to incorporate only naked peptides, but they are costly to synthesize and production would generate extensive chemical waste. Continual production of recombinant peptides specifying immunogenic B and T cell epitopes could be achieved in hosts such as E. coli or yeast. However, recombinant protein/peptide vaccines require purification before administration. The DNA vaccine might serve as the most effective next-generation vaccine for low-income countries, since it does not require an extremely low temperature for storage or need extensive chromatographic purification. The construction of recombinant plasmids carrying genes specifying highly conserved B and T cell epitopes meant that vaccine candidates representing highly conserved antigenic regions could be rapidly developed. Poor immunogenicity of DNA vaccines could be overcome by the incorporation of chemical or molecular adjuvants and the development of nanoparticles for effective delivery.

The mRNA Vaccine Technology Era and the Future Control of Parasitic Infections.

Despite intensive long-term efforts, with very few exceptions, the development of effective vaccines against parasitic infections has presented considerable challenges, given the complexity of parasite life cycles, the interplay between parasites and their hosts, and their capacity to escape the host immune system and to regulate host immune responses. For many parasitic diseases, conventional vaccine platforms have generally proven ill suited, considering the complex manufacturing processes involved and the costs they incur, the inability to posttranslationally modify cloned target antigens, and the absence of long-lasting protective immunity induced by these antigens. An effective antiparasite vaccine platform is required to assess the effectiveness of novel vaccine candidates at high throughput. By exploiting the approach that has recently been used successfully to produce highly protective COVID mRNA vaccines, we anticipate a new wave of research to advance the use of mRNA vaccines to prevent parasitic infections in the near future. This article considers the characteristics that are required to develop a potent antiparasite vaccine and provides a conceptual foundation to promote the development of parasite mRNA-based vaccines. We review the recent advances and challenges encountered in developing antiparasite vaccines and evaluate the potential of developing mRNA vaccines against parasites, including those causing diseases such as malaria and schistosomiasis, against which vaccines are currently suboptimal or not yet available.

Thioredoxin-interacting protein is essential for memory T cell formation via the regulation of the redox metabolism

CD4+ memory T cells are central to long-lasting protective immunity and are involved in shaping the pathophysiology of chronic inflammation. While metabolic reprogramming is critical for the generation of memory T cells, the mechanisms controlling the redox metabolism in memory T cell formation remain unclear. We found that reactive oxygen species (ROS) metabolism changed dramatically in T helper-2 (Th2) cells during the contraction phase in the process of memory T cell formation. Thioredoxin-interacting protein (Txnip), a regulator of oxidoreductase, regulated apoptosis by scavenging ROS via the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)-biliverdin reductase B (Blvrb) pathway. Txnip regulated the pathology of chronic airway inflammation in the lung by controlling the generation of allergen-specific pathogenic memory Th2 cells invivo. Thus, the Txnip-Nrf2-Blvrb axis directs ROS metabolic reprogramming in Th2 cells and is a potential therapeutic target for intractable chronic inflammatory diseases.