Intake Of Long-chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Research Articles

Effect of omega-3 fatty acids on cognition: an updated systematic review of randomized clinical trials.

The increasing number of studies on the effects of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFAs) on health, particularly cognition, in the last 5 years reflects the growing interest in this area of research. The aim for this systematic review was to evaluate the scientific evidence published in the last 5 years (2012-2017) on the effects of n-3 LC-PUFA intake on cognition, cognitive development, and cognitive decline to determine whether n-3 LC-PUFAs support cognitive development and prevent cognitive decline. The PubMed database was searched. The 51 articles included in this systematic review reported on healthy individuals with mild or moderate cognitive impairment and patients with Alzheimer's disease. Risk of bias was assessed using Cochrane methodology. The number of study participants, the type of study, the type and dose of n-3 LC-PUFAs, and the key results are reported here. Current evidence indicates that n-3 LC-PUFAs administered during pregnancy or breastfeeding have no effect on the skills or cognitive development of children in later stages of development. Evidence regarding the improvement of cognitive function during childhood and youth or in attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder is inconclusive. Moreover, it is still unclear if n-3 LC-PUFAs can improve cognitive development or prevent cognitive decline in young or older adults.

Effects of fish oil-derived fatty acids on suboptimal cardiovascular health: A multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial

Background and aimsSuboptimal health and metabolic disorders are common in the general population. Both are related to cardiovascular disease. Suboptimal cardiovascular health is defined by the presence of both suboptimal health and metabolic disorders. The aim of the study was to investigate the potential benefit of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA) in participants with suboptimal cardiovascular health. Methods and resultsA total of 422 participants with suboptimal cardiovascular health, from two clinics in China, were enrolled from September 2014 to April 2015. All the enrolled participants were randomly assigned to receive 4 g/d of fish oil or placebo for three months. Suboptimal health was defined using an accepted questionnaire. Metabolic disorders were defined as one or more abnormalities in blood pressure, fasting plasma glucose, blood lipids, and body mass index (BMI). After treatment, the mean BMI fell significantly more in the n-3 LCPUFA group than in the placebo group (−0.29 ± 0.06 kg/m2 vs. −0.02 ± 0.06 kg/m2, P = 0.003). Similar results were found in the changes of suboptimal health status and suboptimal cardiovascular health status (P < 0.05 for all). In a multivariate analysis, the n-3 LCPUFA group was 5.44 (1.15, 25.67) times more likely to have optimal cardiovascular health status after treatment. Conclusionsn-3 LCPUFA intake improved suboptimal cardiovascular health in this placebo-controlled, randomized, double-blind trial. Trial registrationThis study is registered at www.clinicaltrials.govNCT02103517.

The omega-3 and retinopathy of prematurity relationship.

The aim of this article is to examine the effect of omega-3 (ω-3) long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFAs) intake on retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) by reviewing the experimental and clinical trials conducted on animal models and infants. LCPUFAs demonstrate cytoprotective and cytotherapeutic actions contributing to a number of anti-angiogenic and neuroprotective mechanisms within the retina. Their intake appears to have a beneficial effect on ischemia, oxidative stress, inflammation and cellular signaling mechanisms, influencing retinal cell gene expression and cellular differentiation. ω-3 LCPUFAs may modulate metabolic processes that activate molecules implicated in the pathogenesis of vasoproliferative and neurodegenerative retinal diseases such as ROP.

Validity of a food frequency questionnaire to estimate long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid intake among Japanese women in early and late pregnancy.

BackgroundThe relative validity of food frequency questionnaires for estimating long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid (LC-PUFA) intake among pregnant Japanese women is currently unclear. The aim of this study was to verify the external validity of a food frequency questionnaire, originally developed for non-pregnant adults, to assess the dietary intake of LC-PUFA using dietary records and serum phospholipid levels among Japanese women in early and late pregnancy.MethodsA validation study involving 188 participants in early pregnancy and 169 participants in late pregnancy was conducted. Intake LC-PUFA was estimated using a food frequency questionnaire and evaluated using a 3-day dietary record and serum phospholipid concentrations in both early and late pregnancy.ResultsThe food frequency questionnaire provided estimates of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) intake with higher precision than dietary records in both early and late pregnancy. Significant correlations were observed for LC-PUFA intake estimated using dietary records in both early and late pregnancy, particularly for EPA and DHA (correlation coefficients ranged from 0.34 to 0.40, p < 0.0001). Similarly, high correlations for EPA and DHA in serum phospholipid composition were also observed in both early and late pregnancy (correlation coefficients ranged 0.27 to 0.34, p < 0.0001).ConclusionsOur findings suggest that the food frequency questionnaire, which was originally designed for non-pregnant adults and was evaluated in this study against dietary records and biological markers, has good validity for assessing LC-PUFA intake, especially EPA and DHA intake, among Japanese women in early and late pregnancy.

N-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids and risk of all-cause mortality among general populations: a meta-analysis.

Prospective observational studies have shown inconsistent associations of dietary or circulating n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA) with risk of all-cause mortality. A meta-analysis was performed to evaluate the associations. Potentially eligible studies were identified by searching PubMed and EMBASE databases. The summary relative risks (RRs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated using the random-effects model. Eleven prospective studies involving 371 965 participants from general populations and 31 185 death events were included. The summary RR of all-cause mortality for high-versus-low n-3 LCPUFA intake was 0.91 (95% CI: 0.84–0.98). The summary RR for eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) intake was 0.83 (95% CI: 0.75–0.92) and 0.81 (95% CI: 0.74–0.95), respectively. In the dose-response analysis, each 0.3 g/d increment in n-3 LCPUFA intake was associated with 6% lower risk of all-cause mortality (RR = 0.94, 95% CI: 0.89–0.99); and each 1% increment in the proportions of circulating EPA and DHA in total fatty acids in blood was associated with 20% (RR = 0.80, 95% CI: 0.65–0.98) and 21% (RR = 0.79, 95% CI: 0.63–0.99) decreased risk of all-cause mortality, respectively. Moderate to high heterogeneity was observed across our anlayses. Our findings suggest that both dietary and circulating LCPUFA are inversely associated with all-cause mortality.

Dietary n-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in allergy prevention and asthma treatment

The rise in non-communicable diseases, such as allergies, in westernized countries links to changes in lifestyle and diet. N-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA) present in marine oils facilitate a favorable milieu for immune maturation and may contribute to allergy prevention. N-3 LCPUFA can suppress innate and adaptive immune activation and induce epigenetic changes. Murine studies convincingly show protective effects of fish oil, a source of n-3 LCPUFA, in food allergy and asthma models. Observational studies in human indicate that high dietary intake of n-3 LCPUFA and low intake of n-6 PUFA may protect against the development of allergic disease early in life. High n-6 PUFA intake is also associated with an increased asthma risk while n-3 LCPUFA may be protective and reduce symptoms. The quality of the marine oil used has impact on efficacy of allergy prevention and several observations link in particular n-3 LCPUFA DHA to allergy suppression. Randomized controlled trials indicate that optimal timing, duration and dosage of n-3 LC-PUFA is required to exert an allergy protective effect. Supplementation during early pregnancy and lactation has shown promising results regarding allergy prevention. However these findings should be confirmed in a larger cohort. Although clinical trials in asthma patients reveal no consistent clinical benefits of n-3 LCPUFA supplementation on lung function, it can suppress airway inflammation. Future food-pharma approaches may reveal whether adjunct therapy with dietary n-3 LCPUFA can improve allergy prevention or immunotherapy via support of allergen specific oral tolerance induction or contribute to the efficacy of drug therapy for asthma patients.

Fish consumption in mid-childhood and its relationship to neuropsychological outcomes measured in 7–9 year old children using a NUTRIMENTHE neuropsychological battery

Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA), particularly n-3 LCPUFA, play a central role in neuronal growth and the development of the human brain. Fish is the main dietary source of n-3 LCPUFA. To assess the relation between fish consumption, estimated dietary n-3 LCPUFA intake and cognition and behaviour in childhood in a multi-centre European sample. Children from 2 European studies, CHOP and NUHEAL, were assessed at 8 and 7.5 years of age, respectively. Different outcomes of neuropsychological development (assessed with the standardized NUTRIMENTHE Neuropsychological Battery (NNB) consisting of 15 subtests) were related with outcomes from a food-frequency questionnaire (FFQ) focussing on the consumption of fish. A total of 584 children completed the FFQ and the neuropsychological tests. We found no associations with calculated DHA or EPA intakes for any of the neuropsychological domains. Children who consumed 2 fish meals per week including one of fatty fish, showed no substantive differences in the cognitive domains from the children who did not. However negative associations with fatty fish consumption were found for social problems (p=0.019), attention problems (p=0.012), rule-breaking problems (p=0.019) and aggressive behaviour problems (p=0.032). No association was observed with internalizing problems. Higher levels of externalizing problems (p=0.018) and total problems (p=0.018) were associated with eating less fatty fish. Children who consumed 2 fish meals per week including one of fatty fish were less likely to show emotional and behavioural problems than those who did not.

Fish, long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid intake and incidence of atrial fibrillation: A pooled analysis of two prospective studies

Whether high intakes of fish and long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) reduce the risk of atrial fibrillation (AF) remains uncertain. Thus, we aimed to evaluate the associations of total fish, types of fish, and omega-3 PUFA intake with AF incidence in a large prospective study. We used data from the Cohort of Swedish Men and the Swedish Mammography Cohort to examine the associations of fish consumption and long-chain omega-3 PUFA intake with AF incidence. At baseline, information on fish and omega-3 PUFA intakes was available from 72,984 men and women, aged 45-83 years, without cardiac disease. Cases of AF were identified through linkage with the Swedish National Patient Register. Multivariable-adjusted relative risks were estimated with the use of Cox proportional hazards models. Over a follow-up period of 12 years, 6095 participants (3595 men and 2500 women) developed AF. Intakes of total fish, fatty fish (herring/mackerel and salmon/whitefish/char), and long-chain omega-3 PUFAs were not associated with AF incidence after adjustment for other risk factors. However, high consumption of lean fish (cod/saithe/fish fingers) was associated with a lower risk; multivariable relative risk of AF for ≥3 servings/week compared with never consumption was 0.79 (95% confidence interval, 0.65-0.95). These findings do not support a beneficial association of fatty fish or omega-3 PUFA intake with incident AF. The association between lean fish consumption and AF risk warrants further investigation.

Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Intake in Children with Eosinophilic Esophagitis

Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Intake in Children with Eosinophilic Esophagitis

Omega-3 long-chain PUFA intake during pregnancy and allergic disease outcomes in the offspring: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies and randomized controlled trials

There is some evidence that increased maternal intake of omega-3 (n-3) long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFAs) during pregnancy may reduce the incidence of immunoglobulin E (IgE)-mediated allergic disease. We aimed to evaluate prenatal n-3 LC-PUFA dietary exposure in observational studies and n-3 LC-PUFA supplementation in randomized controlled trials (RCTs) on outcomes of IgE-mediated allergic disease. We conducted searches of the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, PubMed, Ovid MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL, SCOPUS, and Web of Science to 30 July 2015. We included prospective cohort studies that showed an association between maternal fish or n-3 LC-PUFA intake during pregnancy and RCTs with a prenatal intervention to modify maternal n-3 LC-PUFA intake and outcomes of allergic disease (eczema, rhino-conjunctivitis, asthma) or sensitization in the offspring. A total of 13 publications from 10 prospective cohort studies and 7 publications representing 5 unique RCTs were included. Three RCTs were combined in a meta-analysis for selected outcomes. Nine of 13 observational study publications and 5 of 7 publications from RCTs found a protective association between increased prenatal n-3 LC-PUFA or fish intake and incidence of allergic disease symptoms in the child. Meta-analysis was limited because of the heterogeneity of the RCTs. Pooled results showed a significant reduction in the incidence of "atopic eczema," "any positive SPT [skin-prick test]," "sensitization to egg," and "sensitization to any food" in the first 12 mo of life [RRs (95% CIs): 0.53 (0.35, 0.81), P = 0.004; 0.68 (0.52-0.89), P = 0.006; 0.55 (0.39-0.76), P = 0.0004; and 0.59 (0.46, 0.76), P < 0.0001, respectively]. Our systematic review and meta-analysis was suggestive of benefits of increased n-3 LC-PUFAs in the maternal diet and outcomes of childhood allergic disease. However, due to the inconsistency in results, the hypothesis linking maternal n-3 LC-PUFA intake to childhood allergic disease cannot unequivocally be confirmed or rejected.

Effect of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid intake during pregnancy and lactation on infant health outcomes

Effect of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid intake during pregnancy and lactation on infant health outcomes

Women who take n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplements during pregnancy and lactation meet the recommended intake.

The aim of the current study was to estimate total intake and dietary sources of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosapentanoic (DPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and compare DHA intakes with the recommended intakes in a cohort of pregnant and lactating women. Twenty-four-hour dietary recalls and supplement intake questionnaires were collected from 600 women in the Alberta Pregnancy Outcomes and Nutrition (APrON) cohort at each trimester of pregnancy and 3 months postpartum. Dietary intake was estimated in 2 ways: by using a commercial software program and by using a database created for APrON. Only 27% of women during pregnancy and 25% at 3 months postpartum met the current European Union (EU) consensus recommendation for DHA. Seafood, fish, and seaweed products contributed to 79% of overall n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids intake from foods, with the majority from salmon. The estimated intake of DHA and EPA was similar between databases, but the estimated DPA intake was 20%-30% higher using the comprehensive database built for this study. Women who took a supplement containing DHA were 10.6 and 11.1 times more likely to meet the current EU consensus recommendation for pregnancy (95% confidence interval (CI): 6.952-16.07; P<0.001) and postpartum (95% CI: 6.803-18.14; P<0.001), respectively. Our results suggest that the majority of women in the cohort were not meeting the EU recommendation for DHA during pregnancy and lactation, but taking a supplement significantly improved the likelihood that they would meet recommendations.

Fish consumption, long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid intake and risk of metabolic syndrome: a meta-analysis.

Fish and long-chain ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (LCω3PUFA) intake in relation to the risk of cardiovascular diseases have been well studied. However, studies that directly link fish consumption or LCω3PUFA intake to the risk of metabolic syndrome (MetS) are sparse and the results are inconsistent. We reviewed literature through December 2014 and used random-effects or fixed-effects models, as appropriate, to pool the associations of fish or LCω3PUFA intake with the risk of MetS. Nine independent cross-sectional samples (seven cross-sectional studies) and three independent prospective cohorts (two prospective cohort studies) were identified as eligible for this meta-analysis. By pooling data from the prospective cohorts (7860 participants and 1671 incident cases), a significant inverse association between fish consumption and incidence of MetS was found. The pooled RR (95% CI) was 0.71 (0.58, 0.87), comparing the highest to the lowest category of fish consumption, and 0.94 (0.90, 0.98) for one serving/week increment. Consistent results were found for LCω3PUFA intake. Non-significant inverse association of fish or LCω3PUFA intake with risk of MetS was found when pooling the cross-sectional studies. By quantitatively summarizing the literature, a modest inverse association between fish or LCω3PUFA intake and risk of MetS cannot be excluded.

Low Doses of Long-chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Affect Cognitive Function in Elderly Japanese Men: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

Several studies have reported that the supplementation of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA), such as docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and arachidonic acid (ARA) improve cognitive function in the elderly. However, the doses used in these studies were higher than general dietary LCPUFA intake levels. This randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial evaluated the effects of low doses of LCPUFA supplementation corresponding to general dietary intake on cognitive function in non-demented elderly Japanese participants. Japanese men aged 55-64 years were enrolled and randomly allocated to the placebo or LCPUFA group. Participants received 4 weeks of supplementation with LCPUFA-containing oil (DHA, 300 mg/day; EPA, 100 mg/day; and ARA, 120 mg/day) or purified olive oil as placebo. Event-related potential P300, reflecting cognitive processes, was measured before and after supplementation. A total of 113 participants completed the supplementation period, and the per-protocol analysis included 69 participants. Changes in P300 latency were significantly different between the placebo group (+13.6 msec) and the LCPUFA group (-1.8 msec) after supplementation. Significant increases in DHA (+0.9%) and ARA (+0.6%) contents in plasma phospholipids were observed in the LCPUFA group; no changes were observed in the placebo group. Dietary DHA, EPA, and ARA intake were in the normal range for Japan participants and remained unchanged during the study. These results suggest that low doses of LCPUFA supplementation have the potential to improve cognitive function in elderly Japanese men.

Breast milk from women living near Lake Malawi is high in docosahexaenoic acid and arachidonic acid

Adequate long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid (LCPUFA) intake is critical during the fetal and infant periods. We quantified fatty acid content of breast milk (n=718) and plasma from six month old infants (n=412) in southern Malawi, and in usipa (n=3), a small dried fish from Lake Malawi. Compared to global norms, Malawian breast milk fatty acid content (% of total fatty acids) was well above average levels of arachidonic acid [ARA] (0.69% vs. 0.47%) and docosahexaenoic acid [DHA] (0.73% vs. 0.32%). Average Malawian infant plasma ARA (7.5%) and DHA (3.8%) levels were comparable to those reported in infants consuming breast milk with similar fatty acid content. The amounts (mg) of DHA, EPA and ARA provided by a 3oz (85g) portion of dried usipa (1439, 659 and 360, respectively) are considerably higher than those for dried salmon. Usipa may be an important source of LCPUFA for populations in this region.

The effect of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids intake during pregnancy on adiposity of healthy full-term offspring at birth.

The adjusted effect of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid (LCPUFA) intake during pregnancy on adiposity at birth of healthy full-term appropriate-for-gestational age neonates was evaluated. In a cross-sectional convenience sample of 100 mother and infant dyads, LCPUFA intake during pregnancy was assessed by food frequency questionnaire with nutrient intake calculated using Food Processor Plus. Linear regression models for neonatal body composition measurements, assessed by air displacement plethysmography and anthropometry, were adjusted for maternal LCPUFA intakes, energy and macronutrient intakes, prepregnancy body mass index and gestational weight gain. Positive associations between maternal docosahexaenoic acid intake and ponderal index in male offspring (β=0.165; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.031-0.299; P=0.017), and between n-6:n-3 LCPUFA ratio intake and fat mass (β=0.021; 95% CI: 0.002-0.041; P=0.034) and percentage of fat mass (β=0.636; 95% CI: 0.125-1.147; P=0.016) in female offspring were found. Using a reliable validated method to assess body composition, adjusted positive associations between maternal docosahexaenoic acid intake and birth size in male offspring and between n-6:n-3 LCPUFA ratio intake and adiposity in female offspring were found, suggesting that maternal LCPUFA intake strongly influences fetal body composition.

Maternal but Not Fetal FADS Gene Variants Modify the Association between Maternal Long-Chain PUFA Intake in Pregnancy and Birth Weight

Several studies have shown a positive association between maternal fish intake in pregnancy and pregnancy duration and child birth weight (BW), probably due to fish n–3 (ω-3) long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFAs). n–3 LC-PUFAs can also be synthesized endogenously, and their synthesis depends on single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the fatty acid desaturase (FADS) gene encoding for FADS. We assessed the associations of maternal docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) intake in pregnancy with pregnancy duration and BW and investigated whether these associations are modified by maternal or fetal FADS SNP genotypes. We hypothesized that we would find stronger associations in minor allele homozygous mothers or fetuses due to their lower n–3 LC-PUFA endogenous synthesis and hence higher dependence on dietary supply. Data on maternal diet, pregnancy duration, and BW were available for 2622 mother-child pairs from the KOALA (Kind, Ouders en gezondheid: Aandacht voor Leefstijl en Aanleg) Birth Cohort Study. The rs174556 FADS SNP was genotyped in 1516 mothers and 1515 children. Associations and gene-diet interactions were tested with linear regression adjusting for potential confounders, including intake of other PUFAs. Women at the 75th percentile of DHA intake had 0.7-d longer pregnancies (P = 0.016) and 28-g heavier infants (P = 0.039) than did women at the 25th percentile of intake. Associations with arachidonic acid intake were of the same order but in the opposite direction. Mothers who were homozygous for the minor allele had 2-d shorter pregnancies (P = 0.035) and infants who were nearly 140 g lighter (P = 0.006) than did mothers who were major allele homozygotes. Post hoc analyses revealed that they had higher prepregnancy BMI (P = 0.020). Among the women homozygous for the minor allele, those at the 75th percentile of DHA intake had 226-g heavier infants than those at the 25th percentile of intake (P = 0.030), whereas DHA intake was not significantly associated with BW in major allele carriers. These findings suggest that maternal and fetal fatty acid requirements during pregnancy depend on maternal genetic variation in LC-PUFA synthesis.

Meeting the fetal requirement for polyunsaturated fatty acids in pregnancy

The aim of this review is to summarize recent evidence on the importance of individual long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid (LCPUFA) to the developing fetus and the maternal dietary requirement for these. Large-scale randomized controlled trials and innovative genetic and stable isotope studies are providing new insights in this field. Large randomized controlled trials of LCPUFA supplementation in pregnancy suggest that higher n-3 LCPUFA intake reduces the risk of preterm birth and increases the length of gestation, with secondary effects on birth weight. There is little evidence of an effect on postnatal visual function and cognition, but interpretation is complicated by maternal metabolic adaptations and adipose tissue status in the newborn. The links between polymorphisms in the FADS genes and tissue fatty acid composition suggest that LCPUFA synthesis influences overall availability. Stable isotope studies have also demonstrated the capacity for LCPUFA synthesis in pregnancy, the fact that n-6 synthesis is greater than n-3, metabolic channeling of individual fatty acids to different fates, and selective placental transfer. Studies linking FADS genotype to cognition imply that n-3 LCPUFA synthesis could have an effect on infant cognition, but more large-scale genetic studies are needed.

N-3 LC-PUFA supplementation: effects on infant and maternal outcomes

Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA), particularly docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and arachidonic acid, are, respectively, n-3 and n-6 family members and play an important role in fetal and infant growth and development. Pregnancy and lactation impose special nutritional needs for the mother-fetus situation. Since the LC-PUFA required by the fetus is supplied by preferential placental transfer of preformed LC-PUFA rather than their precursor, it has been hypothesized that additional maternal supply of LC-PUFA, especially DHA, during pregnancy may improve maternal and infant outcomes. To summarize evidences of the effect of n-3 LC-PUFA intake during pregnancy and lactation on maternal and infant outcomes in order to offer a comprehensive view of this issue that should be useful for clinical practice. Maternal n-3 LC-PUFA supplementation may reduce risk for early preterm birth >34 weeks and seems very promising for primary allergy prevention during childhood. On the contrary, there are not sufficient data proving that the consumption of oils rich in n-3 LC-PUFA during pregnancy optimizes child's visual and neurodevelopment and reduces the risk for preeclampsia and perinatal depression; the implications of these findings remain to be elucidated. The implications of n-3 LC-PUFA supplementation on fetal development, maternal outcomes and later infant growth is worth being elucidated and is promising in its potential for a positive impact on fetal and maternal outcomes.

A low omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid (n-6 PUFA) diet increases omega-3 (n-3) long chain PUFA status in plasma phospholipids in humans

This study aimed to determine the effect of reducing the dietary linoleic acid (LA) intake from ~5% to <2.5% energy (%E) on n-3 long chain PUFA (LCPUFA) status in humans. Thirty-six participants followed a <2.5%E LA diet for 4 weeks. Nutrient intakes were estimated from diet diaries and blood samples were collected for assessment of fatty acid composition in plasma and erythrocyte phospholipids. LA intakes were reduced from 4.6%E to 2%E during the low LA intervention (P<0.001) while n-3 LCPUFA intakes were unchanged. LA and total n-6 PUFA content of plasma and erythrocyte phospholipids were significantly reduced after the low LA diet phase (P<0.001). The n-3 LCPUFA content of plasma phospholipids was significantly increased after the low LA diet compared to baseline (6.22% vs. 5.53%, P<0.001). These data demonstrate that reducing LA intake for 4 weeks increases n-3 LCPUFA status in humans in the absence of increased n-3 LCPUFA intake.