Location-based Routing Protocols Research Articles

Adaptive Location-based Routing Protocols for Dynamic Wireless Sensor Networks in Urban Cyber-physical Systems

This study investigates the development and enhancement of adaptive location-based routing protocols within dynamic wireless sensor networks (WSNs) in urban cyber-physical systems, recommending the implementation of the study’s innovative Urban Adaptive Location-based Routing Protocol (UALRP). This innovative protocol integrates real-time data analytics and adaptive machine learning models into its algorithmic framework to dynamically optimize routing decisions based on continuously changing urban conditions. Through the utilization of data-driven simulation models and machine learning techniques, the research sought to significantly improve the efficiency, reliability, and scalability of urban WSNs. Existing protocols such as Geographic Adaptive Fidelity (GAF), Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing (GPSR), and Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) were critically assessed under urban settings using extensive datasets detailing New York City's traffic patterns and environmental variables. The analysis demonstrated that while GPSR showed superior performance in terms of latency, throughput, and energy efficiency among the traditional protocols, the introduction of UALRP, with its advanced predictive and adaptive capabilities, can further optimize these metrics. The study affirms the critical role of enhancing location accuracy and the ongoing advancement of machine learning models within urban routing protocols. These insights advocate for the broader implementation of adaptive strategies like UALRP to foster the development of more resilient and efficient urban cyber-physical systems.

Environment-Aware Adaptive Reinforcement Learning-Based Routing for Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks.

With the rapid development of the intelligent transportation system (ITS), routing in vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs) has become a popular research topic. The high mobility of vehicles in urban streets poses serious challenges to routing protocols and has a significant impact on network performance. Existing topology-based routing is not suitable for highly dynamic VANETs, thereby making location-based routing protocols the preferred choice due to their scalability. However, the working environment of VANETs is complex and interference-prone. In wireless-network communication, the channel contention introduced by the high density of vehicles, coupled with urban structures, significantly increases the difficulty of designing high-quality communication protocols. In this context, compared to topology-based routing protocols, location-based geographic routing is widely employed in VANETs due to its avoidance of the route construction and maintenance phases. Considering the characteristics of VANETs, this paper proposes a novel environment-aware adaptive reinforcement routing (EARR) protocol aimed at establishing reliable connections between source and destination nodes. The protocol adopts periodic beacons to perceive and explore the surrounding environment, thereby constructing a local topology. By applying reinforcement learning to the vehicle network's route selection, it adaptively adjusts the Q table through the perception of multiple metrics from beacons, including vehicle speed, available bandwidth, signal-reception strength, etc., thereby assisting the selection of relay vehicles and alleviating the challenges posed by the high dynamics, shadow fading, and limited bandwidth in VANETs. The combination of reinforcement learning and beacons accelerates the establishment of end-to-end routes, thereby guiding each vehicle to choose the optimal next hop and forming suboptimal routes throughout the entire communication process. The adaptive adjustment feature of the protocol enables it to address sudden link interruptions, thereby enhancing communication reliability. In experiments, the EARR protocol demonstrates significant improvements across various performance metrics compared to existing routing protocols. Throughout the simulation process, the EARR protocol maintains a consistently high packet-delivery rate and throughput compared to other protocols, as well as demonstrates stable performance across various scenarios. Finally, the proposed protocol demonstrates relatively consistent standardized latency and low overhead in all experiments.

A Q-Learning-Based Topology-Aware Routing Protocol for Flying Ad Hoc Networks

Flying <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">ad hoc</i> networks (FANETs) have emanated over the last few years for numerous civil and military applications. Owing to underlying attributes, such as a dynamic topology, node mobility in 3-D space, and the limited energy of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), a routing protocol for FANETs is challenging to design. Exiting topology-based routing is unsuitable for highly dynamic FANETs. Location-based routing protocols can be preferred for FANETs owing to their scalability, but are based on one-hop neighbor information and do not contemplate the reachability of further appropriate nodes for forwarding. Owing to the rapid mobility of UAVs, the topology frequently changes; thus, some route entries in the routing table can become invalid and the next-hop nodes may be unavailable before a timeout. That is, the routing decision based on one-hop neighbors cannot assure a successful delivery. In this study, we propose a novel <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">$Q$ </tex-math></inline-formula> -learning-based topology-aware routing (QTAR) protocol for FANETs to provide reliable combinations between the source and destination. The proposed QTAR improves the routing decision by considering two-hop neighbor nodes, extending the local view of the network topology. With the <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">${Q}$ </tex-math></inline-formula> -learning technique, QTAR adaptively adjusts the routing decision according to the network condition. Our simulation results reveal that QTAR outstrips the existing routing protocols in respect of various performance metrics under distinct scenarios.

Movable Platform-Based Topology Detection for a Geographic Routing Wireless Sensor Network.

With the increasing adoption of the Internet-of-Things (IoT), the wireless sensors network (WSN), as an underlying application of IoT, has attracted increasing attention. Topology, the working structure used to observe WSN, is the most instinctive form in troubleshooting and has great significance to WSN management and safety. To this end, it is imperative to recover WSN topology for the purpose of network management and non-cooperative network detection. Traditional network topology recovery mainly relies on the monitoring modules installed in nodes, or an extra network attached. However, these two approaches have several limitations, such as high energy consumption for monitoring nodes, time synchronization problems, reuse failure, limitation to specific targeted networks and high cost. In this paper, we present a new approach to recover the topology of WSN that adopts location-based routing protocols, based on movable platforms. Our observation is that the network topology is consistent with the node routing, as the nodes choose the next hop according to the geological position of neighbor nodes. Hence, we calculate the cost parameters of choosing routing nodes for the targeted network according to the partial connection of the nodes. Based on those cost parameters, we can determine the topology of the whole network. More specifically, by collecting the geological position and data packets of the nodes from movable platforms, we are able to infer the topology of the WSN according to the recovered partial connection of nodes. Our approach can be easily adopted to many scenarios, especially for non-cooperative large-scale networks. The evaluation of 30 simulations shows that the accuracy of recovery is above 90%.

ENERGY EFFICIENT ROUTING PROTOCOL FOR INCREASING LIFETIME OF WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORK

In the recent years, an efficient design of a Wireless Sensor Network has become important in the area of research. The major challenges in the design of Wireless Sensor Network is to improve the network lifetime. The main difficulty for sensor node is to survive in that monitoring area for the longer time that means there is a need to increase the lifetime of the sensor nodes by optimizing the energy and distance.&#x0D; There are various existing routing protocols in which optimal routing can be achieved like Data-Centric, Hierarchical and Location-based routing protocols. In this paper, new power efficient routing protocol is being proposed that not only select the shortest path between the source node and sink node for data transmission but also maximizes the lifetime of the participating nodes by selecting the best path for sending the data packet across the network. The main objective of this research is to develop a faster algorithm to find the energy efficient route for Wireless Sensor Network. Simulation results shows that this strategy achieves long network lifetime when compared to the other standard protocols.

Design and Evaluation of Flooding-Based Location Service in Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks.

Location-based routing protocols for vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs) use location information to determine routing decisions. This information is provided by a location service that is queried by nodes in order to properly forward packets to communication partners. This paper presents the semiflooding location service, a proactive flooding-based location service that drastically reduces the number of update packets sent over the network compared to traditional flooding-based location services. This goal is achieved by each node partially forwarding location information. We present both deterministic and probabilistic approaches for this algorithm, which remains very simple. A mathematical model is proposed to show the effectiveness of this solution. The cases of homogeneous 1D, 2D, and 3D networks were studied for both deterministic and probabilistic forwarding decisions. We compare our algorithm with simple flooding and with the multipoint-relay (MPR) flooding of the optimized-link-state-routing (OLSR) protocol, and we show that our algorithm, despite being very simple, has excellent scalability properties. The mean number of generated messages ranges with the mean number of the neighbors of one random network node.

Energy Aware Cluster Based Multi-hop Energy Efficient Routing Protocol using Multiple Mobile Nodes (MEACBM) in Wireless Sensor Networks

Routing in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) is the most significant and the challenging issue for the researchers in terms of enhancing its performance in terms of network lifetime, energy efficiency, scalability, connectivity, throughput, etc. They have the incredible capability to interact and gather data from any physical environment with help of routing protocols. Many routing protocols based solutions have been proposed in the recent years for accomplishing the preferred level of performance in WSNs for these issues. The hierarchical heterogeneous cluster based energy efficient routing protocols are more efficient as compared to flat and location based routing protocols due to the presence of nodes heterogeneity in terms of energy level of sensor nodes which enhances the lifetime of the network. The most recent trend that extensively enhances the functionality and the performance of WSNs is the use of mobile sensor nodes. In this paper, the authors proposed a novel concept regarding mobile sensor nodes is proposed called Mobile Energy Aware Cluster Based Multi-hop (MEACBM) routing protocol for hierarchical heterogeneous WSNs which selects CHs on the basis of newly proposed probability equation which selects only that sensor node as Cluster Head (CH) which has the highest energy among other sensor nodes by introducing a new term S(i).E in the equation. It considers hierarchical heterogeneous clustering considering three levels of sensor nodes; multi-hoping for inter-cluster communication and connectivity of sensor nodes within the whole network area. In MEACBM, after the deployment of sensor nodes and formation of clusters, the whole network area is divided into sectors and inside each sector a mobile sensor node is placed which act as Mobile Data Collector (MDC) for collecting data from CHs. This technique helps in significantly reducing the energy consumption of sensor nodes for transferring information to the Base Station (BS). Simulation performance based results indicates the effectiveness of MEACBM routing protocols by comparing it with other contemporary cluster based routing protocols in terms of network lifetime, stability, throughput, number of CHs and number of dead nodes.

A Comparative Study on Location Based Routing Protocols in Wireless Sensor Network

International Journal of Computer Sciences and Engineering (A UGC Approved and indexed with DOI, ICI and Approved, DPI Digital Library) is one of the leading and growing open access, peer-reviewed, monthly, and scientific research journal for scientists, engineers, research scholars, and academicians, which gains a foothold in Asia and opens to the world, aims to publish original, theoretical and practical advances in Computer Science,Information Technology, Engineering (Software, Mechanical, Civil, Electronics & Electrical), and all interdisciplinary streams of Computing Sciences. It intends to disseminate original, scientific, theoretical or applied research in the field of Computer Sciences and allied fields. It provides a platform for publishing results and research with a strong empirical component. It aims to bridge the significant gap between research and practice by promoting the publication of original, novel, industry-relevant research.

Fuzzy logic based multihop topology control routing protocol in wireless sensor networks

Reducing energy consumption has been a recent focus of wireless sensor network as it directly affects network lifetime. Geographical adaptive fidelity (GAF) is one of the well-known topology management multihop location-based routing protocols. Its main objective is to turn-off unnecessary sensor nodes while maintaining uninterrupted connectivity between communicating sensors. It is proved to be able to extend the lifetime of self-configuring systems by exploiting redundancy to conserve energy while maintaining application fidelity. Traditional GAF introduces unreachable corners; also the symmetric property is at stake thus providing with less network utility. In this paper, we propose a fuzzy logic based geographic routing protocol named FGAF-HEX to achieve higher energy optimization. Further, we use a GAF based Honeycomb Architecture to replace the traditional square grid with the hexagonal virtual grid. Simulation and analysis results show significant improvement in proposed work over traditional GAF in terms of various parameters, i.e., network lifetime and network connectivity. Results show that FGAF-HEX provides a substantial improvement in terms of various metrics as compared to traditional GAF.

Routing Protocols used in Wireless Sensor Network

Objectives: Distinctive routing protocols are designed where energy awareness is considered as essential design issue.The main objective of routing is to enhance the lifetime of the network by selecting appropriate route. Methods:Therouting protocols are classified into different categories which are location based routing protocols, hierarchical network routing and flat based routing protocols, Area based routing protocols are GAF, GEAR and SPAN. Hierarchical routing protocols are LEACH, PEGASIS, TEEN and APTEEN. Flat routing protocols are SPIN, Directed Diffusion and Rumor Routing. All these protocols have different working and perform different types of operations in order to increase the lifetime of the network. Findings: In Wireless Sensor Network, sensor nodes consist of limited storage capacity, transmission range as well as limited energy resources. Also the sensor nodes can process limited amount of data. So in this case we need to have some conventions which can help to reduce the energy consumption of nodes. We found that all routing protocols are performing different operations in order to minimize the energy consumption of the network. Different approaches are used to enhance the lifetime of the network. Some protocols are using hierarchical conventions, some are using flat routing conventions and some are using area based routing conventions.Every one of these conventions is serving the lifetime of system in their own specific manner. Applications:The routing protocols are used in all types of Wireless Sensor Networks in order to enhance the lifetime of the network. Routing protocols are mainly used in time-driven, event-driven and querydriven applications. Keywords: Base Station, Data Dissemination, Data Transmission,Energy Efficiency, Routing Protocols, Wireless Sensor Network

アドホックネットワークにおける指向性アンテナを用いた適応型位置情報ルーチング

In mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs), when information about the location of the destination node is known, efficient communication can be achieved by using location-based routing protocols. Even in location-based routing protocols, with omnidirectional antennas there is some redundant route discovery by blind flooding of route request packets outside the area between the source and destination. These redundant route discovery propagations can be reduced by using both a scheme of restricted flooding and directional antennas. In this paper, we propose a new location-based routing protocol using both restricted flooding and directional antennas, called Adaptive Location-Aware Routing with Directional Antennas (ALAR-DA). To investigate the performance of ALAR-DA, we compare it with existing location-aware routing protocols. Our simulation results show that ALAR-DA outperforms existing protocols from the standpoints of delay and route discovery traffic.

A Comprehensive Survey on Hierarchical-Based Routing Protocols for Mobile Wireless Sensor Networks: Review, Taxonomy, and Future Directions

Introducing mobility to Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) puts new challenges particularly in designing of routing protocols. Mobility can be applied to the sensor nodes and/or the sink node in the network. Many routing protocols have been developed to support the mobility of WSNs. These protocols are divided depending on the routing structure into hierarchical-based, flat-based, and location-based routing protocols. However, the hierarchical-based routing protocols outperform the other routing types in saving energy, scalability, and extending lifetime of Mobile WSNs (MWSNs). Selecting an appropriate hierarchical routing protocol for specific applications is an important and difficult task. Therefore, this paper focuses on reviewing some of the recently hierarchical-based routing protocols that are developed in the last five years for MWSNs. This survey divides the hierarchical-based routing protocols into two broad groups, namely, classical-based and optimized-based routing protocols. Also, we present a detailed classification of the reviewed protocols according to the routing approach, control manner, mobile element, mobility pattern, network architecture, clustering attributes, protocol operation, path establishment, communication paradigm, energy model, protocol objectives, and applications. Moreover, a comparison between the reviewed protocols is investigated in this survey depending on delay, network size, energy-efficiency, and scalability while mentioning the advantages and drawbacks of each protocol. Finally, we summarize and conclude the paper with future directions.

Location-Based Routing Protocols for Wireless Sensor Networks: A Survey

Recently, location-based routings in wireless sensor networks (WSNs) are attracting a lot of interest in the research community, especially because of its scalability. In location-based routing, the network size is scalable without increasing the signalling overhead as routing decisions are inherently localized. Here, each node is aware of its position in the network through some positioning device like GPS and uses this information in the routing mechanism. In this paper, we first discuss the basics of WSNs including the architecture of the network, energy consumption for the components of a typical sensor node, and draw a detailed picture of classification of location-based routing protocols. Then, we present a systematic and comprehensive taxonomy of location-based routing protocols, mostly for sensor networks. All the schemes are subsequently discussed in depth. Finally, we conclude the paper with some insights on potential research directions for location-based routing in WSNs.

Analysis of WSN routing protocols for the application of forest fire prevention

Forests are precious and indispensable natural resource. Using wireless sensor networks (WSN) to establish forest fire prevention system can effectively reduce loss of human and economy. However, monitoring a very large and complex area such as the entire forest by WSN would entail a large number of sensor nodes, which are hard to be replaced or recharged. Such working conditions and constrains give rise to the necessity to make careful design on network protocol for the WSN. In this paper, we compare and analyse several key parameters for the location-based routing protocols and hierarchical routing protocols. This research will assist the users to design or select the best routing protocols for their applications.

On-demand Misbehavior Detection for Vehicular Ad Hoc Network

Maintaining communication links of an established communication path that extends between source and destination nodes is a significant challenge in Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks due to movement of the vehicles. Operations of Vehicular Ad Hoc Network rely on the collaboration of participating nodes to route data for each other. A critical requirement on the nodes is to cooperate with each other for successful data transmission. Thus, the impact of malicious and selfish users must be detected to ensure the operations of Vehicular Ad Hoc Network. In this article, we proposed On-demand Misbehavior Detection technique for vehicle-to-vehicle communication. We adapt two location-based routing protocols, Contention-Based Forwarding and Connectionless Approach for Streets, to our On-demand Misbehavior Detection. Various experiments are conducted to show the effectiveness and efficiency of the proposed On-demand Misbehavior Detection technique. The simulation and analytical results showed that the proposed technique is very effective in detecting misbehaving nodes.

Implementation of geographical location based routing protocols in vehicular environment

An important special class of mobile ad hoc networks in vehicular environment is VANET where vehicles communicate among each other and road side units. Since road structures are predefined and vehicles move with very high speed, the connectivity among vehicles breaks very often, therefore routing becomes a very challenge issue in VANET. Most of the authors used IEEE802.11b/g based routing protocols. The standard used for VANET is IEEE802.11p. This paper implements the IEEE802.11p based two geographical routing protocols location-aided-routing (LAR) protocol and zone-routing-protocol (ZRP) for city as well as highway vehicular environment. Vehicular movement traces are obtained with VanetMobiSim tool having intelligent driver model (IDM). IDM with intersection management and IDM with lane-changing modules are used. Packet delivery ratio, throughput, delay, normalized routing load and lost packet ratio metrics are used to evaluate LAR and ZRP routing protocols implemented in VANET.

Contextual optimization of location-based routing protocols for multi-hop cellular networks using mobile relays

Traditional single-hop cellular architectures fail to provide high and homogeneous quality of service levels throughout a cell area due to the strong signal attenuation with the distance. In this context, multi-hop cellular networks that utilize mobile relays and device-to-device communications have been proposed to overcome the physical limitations of conventional cellular architectures. One of the key building blocks of multi-hop cellular networks is the multi-hop routing of information from the source to the destination. This paper investigates the performance and energy signaling benefits of location-based multi-hop routing protocols. In particular, the paper demonstrates the benefits of a contextual optimization of this type of protocols in order to achieve a high end-to-end performance, while reducing the energy and signaling implementation cost.

The effect of location errors on location based routing protocols in wireless sensor networks

Location-based routing protocols use position information for making packet forwarding decisions, assuming perfect location information. Unlike topological routing algorithms, they do not need to exchange and maintain routing information. They work nearly stateless. However, in practice there could be significant errors in obtaining location estimates.In this paper, the impact of location errors on power consumption of these protocols will be analyzed via developing a mathematical model represents the location errors that may occur in real deployment. Then a simulation of the power consumption of two location-based routing protocols, Geographic Random Forwarding (GeRaf) and Minimum Energy Consumption Forwarding (MECF), is carried out to evaluate the mathematical model.Both the obtained simulation results and the developed mathematical model show that this type of routing protocols suffers from substantial performance degradation in terms of power consumption in presence of location errors.

Routing Protocols under different Mobility Models, Node Density and Speed

Mobile Ad hoc NETwork (MANET) is self-organized and decentralized network. Due to these properties, they are usable in the field of disaster management, war scenarios, vehicular network etc. To send packets from source to destination, route(s) are required; to achieve this task routing protocols are designed. Routing protocols for MANET have been grouped into four types on the basis of single channel classification. These are Proactive, Reactive, Hybrid and Location-based/ Geographic. The performance of these protocols depends on various factors including mobility pattern/model, speed of node, density of node, area, transmission range etc. In this paper the factors taken into account are mobility models, speed of node and density of node. The performance metrics includes throughput, end to end delay and packet loss. The protocols simulated are DSR, LAR, OLSR and ZRP, choosing one from each group discussed above. The mobility models employed in this study are Random Way Point, Gauss Markov, Reference Point Group Mobility and Manhattan Grid. From the results it is evident that with the change in mobility pattern, speed and density of the nodes the performance varies. Furthermore it has been observed that location based routing protocols (LAR) and OLSR shows good performance with these variations.

Location based Routing Protocols: A Survey

Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks (MANET) or Wireless sensor Network (WSN) is a collection of wireless nodes without any centralized access point, topology or centralized administration. Because of this conditions, network overhead and packet delivery ratio get affected. Hence to reduce routing overhead and increase packet delivery ratio in this type network, there are many routing protocols are developed by researchers. Here we are presenting a survey of such routing protocol that make forwarding decision based on node geographic position and route packets only in the direction of destination node. This type of limited flooding reduces the routing overhead in the network. To know the node position, GPS or some other Location services are used.