Local Rulers Research Articles

British Edition of the Monroe Doctrine versus ‘Com- munist Militarism’: Collisions between the USSR and the UK in Eastern Countries in the mid-1920s

The new US foreign policy concept in the Western hemisphere introduced by the American President J. Monroe in December 1823 has become a milestone both in the country’s history and in the theory and practice of international relations in general. For Great Britain, the principles of the Monroe Doctrine acquired new relevance after the end of the First World War. The prospect of unfettered Bolshevik expansion into British colonies and dependent territories in Asia and Africa became a matter of particular concern for the UK ruling circles. It was this threat that forced the military and political elites of Great Britain to turn to the experience of their overseas counterparts and develop a set of measures that can be described as the British edition of the Monroe Doctrine. These measures were directed right against the Bolsheviks’ attempts to revolutionize the national liberation movement and to use it to undermine the ‘colonial rear’ of the imperialist powers. British decision-makers interpreted these attempts as a Bolsheviks’ endeavor to revive the foreign policy practices of the Russian Empire and denoted them as ‘communist militarism’. It is through the lens of the collision of the British edition of the Monroe Doctrine and the concept of ‘communist militarism’ that this study examines the dynamics of the Soviet-British confrontation in Central Asia in the mid-1920s. Special attention is paid to the struggle that took place between the two countries in Iran (Persia), Afghanistan, northwest India, Xinjiang and Tibet. This competition for influence over local rulers took a variety of forms: from information and propaganda campaigns to rivalry in the field of infrastructure and logistics projects. At the same time, it was accompanied by a constant clash of interests of various factions within the USSR and Great Britain, which prevented them from pursuing a coherent policy in the region. Together, these circumstances endowed the Soviet-British rivalry in Central Asia in the 1920s with a number of unique features that does not allow it to be interpreted as just yet another round of the ‘Great Game’.

Mercantile Life in Early 19th Century Southeast Asia: The Ross Brothers

Abstract: British traders operating in the East in the early nineteenth century faced warfare, piracy, and shipwreck, along with the competing interests of local rulers and East India Company (EIC) officials. This article looks at episodes in the maritime careers of three brothers to show how the commercial environment affected trade. The brothers were born in Jamaica, illegitimate sons of a Scottish trader who served as a government official and his freed slave. One son became a ship’s captain in the Bombay Marine, the private navy of the EIC and an important surveyor of Eastern seas. Another son also joined the Bombay Marine but left under unknown circumstances and transferred to the private ‘country trade’ after adopting a new name. The third son became a ship’s captain in the country trade and died after an attack by local pirates in Bangka. The family circumstances that led to the brothers’ careers and lives of their children are summarized to illustrate the social mobility of descendants of West Indian slaves in the early nineteenth century.

Socio-Political Structure in Central Anatolia in the Third Millennium BC

In Central Anatolia, the socio-economic and political organization of communities in the 3rd millennium BC includes a limited number of studies from different perspectives. These studies refer to a socio-political system in which administrative units divided into regions and provinces are administered by “local rulers”, “independent princes" or "kings". It is suggested that the cities of these principalities were surrounded by walls, they were administered by a ruling class, they participated in commercial activities and the existence of an organization they controlled these, and emphasis is placed on the class society structure consisting of administrators, soldiers and merchants. As mentioned here, the social structure of the socities of the 3rd millennium BC and their relations with each other in the subject region are generally considered in a hierarchical order, and complicate to understand the different social models. Since the social structure cannot be explained only in hierarchical order, some new approaches have been developed. Accordingly, although different individuals in the society gain priority in various activities such as religion, trade, and politics, they may not exhibit a central and hierarchical structure in power relations. In this paper, based on this approach, the socio-political structure and power phenomenon of the 3rd millennium BC communities in the region will be discussed within the socio-economic models, production and specialization, evidence of administrative practices, patterns of settlement, burial customs, phenomenon of belief and remnants of material culture pointing to social complexity, and the views that refer to hierarchical structuring in power relations will be approached.

The North-Eastern Caucasus as an object of Russian geopolitics (the 17th – 18th centuries)

A feature of the geopolitical position of the political entities of the Eastern Caucasus was the constant claims from Persia and, at times, Turkey. Maneuvering between the Safavids, Ottomans, Girays and Ryurikoviches (then Romanovs) often formed the basis of the foreign policy activities of local rulers. The result of such maneuvering was the periodically arising ‘general servitude’ — recognition of subordination to both the Russian tsar and the Persian shah. Only at the beginning of the 19th century, as a result of the victories of the Russian troops, the question arose about the ofϐicial annexation of the Eastern Caucasus to the Russian Empire.

The Covenants of the Patriarchs with Foreigners at Beersheba

The author of this paper seeks the original historical context as well as the oldest form, structure and concept of the biblical records of the covenants of Abraham and Isaac with the local ruler(s) as recorded in Gen 21:22–24, 25–33; 26:26–31. The patriarchs, who enjoy the status of foreign/sojourner/ resident in the land of the Philistine king, Abimelek, and their peaceful agreements are depicted in three biblical sources, which are very similar to each other in terms of structure and literary context. Those are compared with selected Hittite, Babylonian and Assyrian records of the royal covenants from the 2 millennium BC. The methodology adopted in the research allowed several important formal and substantive points of contact to be noted in the compared sources. Through this comparison, the paper confirms that Gen 21:22–24, 25 33; 26:26–31 reflects two ancient patterns of bilateral covenants between the monarch and an equal or subordinate social partner: royal grants and suzerain-vassal treaties. The paper also discusses the socio-cultural and legal spectrum of the Near Eastern royal procedures and how they were re-edited and adapted by the editors responsible for the current version of the biblical cycles about the patriarchs.

State and Society under the Zikris in Makran: A Historical Account

Makran is the South-Western division of Balochistan, Pakistan and the South-Eastern region of Sistan-wa-Balochistan, Iran. Makran has been of great importance to many superpowers of the last thirteen centuries. Macedonians, Sassanid Persians, Sindhi Brahmins, and Arabs had all laid nominal claim to Makran at various times. It has been the battlefield for several ancient powers such as Sassanid, Indians and Greek. Throughout the medieval era, it was dominated by the Arabs and other Central Asian dynasties such as the Seljuks, Ghaznavids and Ghorids. During the 16th century, it was also invaded by the Portuguese. However, authority always remained with local rulers, particularly the Maliks, the Buledis and the Ghichkis. The Zikris are the followers of Sayyid Muhammad Jaunpuri and recognized him as Mahdi. During the 15th century, the Zikrism spread rapidly in Makran and gained considerable political support as it succeeded to establish a state in Makran. However, during the 18th century, the Zikri State was attacked and occupied by the ruler of Kalat State, Khan Mir Nasir Khan. The Zikri ruled Makran for almost three centuries, which was known for justice, peace and prosperity in Makran. The paper examines the historical development of the Zikri State in Makran and also discusses its socio-political structure and administration in the light of primary sources.

Constrained river, constrained choices: seasonal floods and colonial authority in the Red River Delta

AbstractThis article examines the problem of flooding in colonial Tonkin through two interrelated lenses: the history of disasters as social and political phenomena, and the history of technology and the constraints that shape its use. With a gradient ten times steeper than the Mekong, the Red River (Sông Cáiin Vietnamese) is notorious for its huge seasonal fluctuations and violent floods. For centuries, local rulers and cultivators constructed dikes to protect fields and settlements, though breaches and inundations were frequent. French administrators were convinced that they could improve the flooding situation with modern know-how. From the 1890s, colonial engineers carefully studied the river's behavior, examined a range of different schemes to control it, and debated the extent to which the straitjacketing of the river might gradually exacerbate flood risk. Despite their deep-seated misgivings about the problems caused by dikes, they were ultimately forced to work within the parameters of pre-colonial hydraulic works. The result was an intensification of existing dependencies and flood vulnerabilities, which finally came to a head under the combined pressures of extreme weather and war, and which ultimately played an important role in undermining colonial authority in the Red River delta.

Zur Praxis des Judenschutzes im Meistertum des Deutschen Ordens zum Ende der Frühen Neuzeit

Abstract The article deals with the practice of granting protection in the Franconian possessions of the Teutonic Order. In the early modern period, the examined area was a dominion characterized by structures of small-scale ownership, disputed dominion rights and unclear borders. The Jewish population lived distributed over the entire area in specific focal points. Branches with shared local rulers were of particular importance. The right to settle was nominally granted by the Hochmeister and Deutschmeister. Obtaining protection was associated with an official process for which defined patterns of action were developed. It formed a communication and negotiation process that was conducted across various administrative levels and was characterized by a close exchange between Christian and Jewish actors.

Assembling a household in the Middle Nile Valley (Old Dongola, Sudan) in the 16th–17th centuries

Old Dongola, with a history reaching back to the 5th century AD, was originally the capital of Makuria, one of the three medieval Nubian kingdoms. After the collapse of Makuria, its capital city saw migratory movements and political changes that resulted in the emergence of new power relations. In the 16th and 17th centuries, the city was the seat of a local ruler subordinate to the Funj Sultanate. New communities that emerged in this setting inhabited the city until the colonial era. This paper examines the ways in which Funj-period households, as fundamental social units in Old Dongola, were mutually constitutive with houses, engaging with their spatiality and materiality through social practices. The authors investigate domestic labour, which was an essential factor in the negotiation of social differences and identities within the household. Differences in building techniques are analysed to compare various ways in which dwellers engaged with houses and to assess their implications for social differentiation within the city.

A French Manuscript on Trade and Diplomacy in Iran during the Zand Era

Abstract A highly interesting memoir about Iran, written by Jean-François-Xavier Rousseau (1738–1808), an agent of the French East India Company (Compagnie des Indes orientales) in Basra, apparently unpublished and unknown until now, covers the political situation of the late Zand period of the 1770s in an effort to promote French trade in the Persian Gulf. This text, entitled Situation actuelle du royaume de Perse (The Current Situation of the Kingdom of Persia), is a valuable document that sheds light on the French commercial strategy towards Iran and testifies to the social contacts between European merchants, diplomats, local rulers, and the Zand court in the eighteenth century.

Analyses on Chinese Villages’ Local Economy — Hezhai’s Case Study

The chinese One-Party political system has prioritized economic development and social stability. The economic development is also local governance units’ main target, due to their fragile economic conditions. In 2020, China estimated over 500 thousand villages and registered about 36% of the population as rural. Apart from receiving State funds, the villages have some self-governance mechanisms permitted to stimulate their own local economies. The service industry is becoming a strong contender for the local development, especially rural tourism. Many studies made, show a connection between the political system and the economic development. This article analyses the village’s economic development, while reflecting on the effect of self-governance throughout the entire process. The investigation that focused on Hezhai village is a direct result of interviews made to local rulers and inhabitants, as well as the consideration of official data and information from a comparative database. To start, the current article displays the Chinese villages’ self-governance system and the main strategies for the economic development used at a basic level. Secondly it focuses on Hezhai and finally presents a reflection on what challenges local economies face in the future and the impact self-governance has on an economical point of view.

The Lords of Kawkabān and the Transformation of the State in Early Modern Yemen (15th–17th Centuries)

Abstract This article reconstructs the history of a Zaydi sayyid clan, the Āl Shams al-Dīn, their rise to prominence prior to the Ottoman conquest of Yemen and their continued success in maintaining their status at the top of Yemeni socio-political hierarchies over four centuries. The article explains the reasons for the success of the family as resilient local rulers and argues that the ability of the lords of Kawkabān to build alliances with the Ottomans was a necessary step for them to keep their special status in the next state formed in Yemen—the Qasimid imamate. Their alliance with the Ottomans is placed in a broader context for comparison. Through the analysis of the position of the family in early modern Yemen continuities between three successive political regimes are demonstrated.

Environmental Education to Preserve the Environment in Current Legislation in Angola

In Angola, the environmental problem is manifested as an explicit concern, so that, in the Basic Law of the Environment, it is directed that all citizens have the right and the duty to receive environmental education for better understand the phenomena of environmental balance, an essential basis for conscious action in defense of the National Environmental Policy.
 The present study aims to identify the existing guidelines in the legislation in force in Angola for environmental education and the preservation of the environment, as well as the contradictions that occur in local community participation, in this context. In the investigation, the review of laws and decrees, interviews with local rulers and participant observation were used as methods. The study allowed us to conclude that in the legislation in force in Angola there are sufficient guidelines for environmental education and the preservation of the environment, but for the creation of a healthy environment there are weaknesses in local community participation, mainly due to the negligence of some of the local governments that aggravate the situation, due to the non-compliance with the norms for the preservation of the environment and the inadequacies in the incorporation of environmental education in the educational process that guarantees the local community participation in the defense of the national environmental policy.

Visual Transmission in Tibetan Ritual Polemics

Tibetan Buddhist debates about funerary practices feature no shortage of hairsplitting. In their writings on funerary rituals in the tradition of the Sarvadurgatipariśodhana Tantra, the prolific Bo dong Paṇ chen Phyogs las rnam rgyal (1375/76–1451) and the Sa skya pa savant Go rams pa Bsod nams seng ge (1429–89) quarrel over what might appear to be very minor issues. This article looks at one such exchange, specifically, how these exegetes understand the details of “visual transmission” and how successive iterations of observation and imitation between master and disciple constitute an authoritative lineage. The article reveals that the specifics of each author’s position on visual transmission was the product of polemical pressures for each one to articulate the specifics of their viewpoint. Understanding a disagreement like this requires contextualization. When Go rams pa was writing his response to Bo dong Paṇ chen, he was receiving support from a local ruler who had been a disciple of the late Bo dong Paṇ chen. Looking to secure further patronage for himself and the Sa skya tradition more broadly, Go rams pa certainly had reason to defend the Sa skya patriarch Rje btsun Grags pa rgyal mtshan (1147–1216) against Bo dong Paṇ chen’s critiques. However, limiting this debate to issues of patronage would be reductive at best. Although this point of disagreement may seem minor, it reveals a sophisticated analysis on how textual and empirical evidence cohere in order to determine correct tantric practice. In this sense, elements of tantric Buddhist traditions are deeply indebted to empirical knowledge.

“The Leading Ones” and “Kings”: What Did Manetho Know About the Political Disintegration of the Second Intermediate Period, and How Did He Express This Knowledge?

The paper treats expressions in which Manetho’s narrative about the Hyksos period, known in literal quotation and detailed retelling by Josephus, describes the actors of power in Egypt at different phases of this period. On the eve of Hyksos invasion, according to Manetho, there was one king in Egypt and “the hegemonizing ones” (rulers, leaders) who stand apart from him in the context, and analysis of the text shows that they are the local rulers who performed quasi-independence under the nominal sovereignty of kings of a certain dynasty. In the phase of Hyksos control over all of Egypt, the Hyksos kings of Avaris are depicted as supreme rulers over the “kings of Thebaid” and “[kings] of other Egyptian lands” who are titularly equated with their Hyksos overlords by Manetho; at some point they overthrow the Hyksos yoke and begin the war against Avaris. By the end of this struggle, by Manetho, only the Theban kings are acting on the Egyptian side. This picture largely coincides with real history (the fragmentation of Egypt before the emergence of the Avaris kingdom and at the times of its hegemony; the division of all of Egypt between Avaris kingdom and the Theban kingdom independent of it in the last phase before the fall of Avaris). This reveals Manetho's high awareness of the real situation of the Second Intermediate Period; some primary sources of this awareness were probably inscriptions and literary compositions that directly reflected the interaction between various local rulers contemporaneous to each other.

Hadhramaut Arabs in the Malay World: Features of Naturalization and Social Status

In island Southeast Asia, since the first centuries of the Muslim era, the Hadhramaut Arab diaspora has been steadily present. Arabs controlled maritime trade south of the Arabian Peninsula since pre-Islamic times. They have long traded with India, and sometimes sailed even further to their cherished goal - the Spice Islands (Moluccas). With the advent of Islam, the presence of Arabs in the ports of the Archipelago increased and was generally perceived positively: they acted as bearers and preachers of the new religion. Over time, their business contacts with the local merchant community grew stronger. The most powerful influx of Arabs to Nusantara dates back to the beginning of the 18th century. Subsequently, with the opening of the Suez Canal (1869), this process gained even greater scope. Over the years, the aliens, step by step, won a place for themselves in the field of commerce, in agriculture and shipbuilding, Islamic preaching and diplomacy, education and politics. Some of them laid the foundation for new Malay dynasties (the sultanates of Siak and Kalimantan, 18th century) or simply entered the circle close to local rulers. Since the beginning of the twentieth century Arab merchants participate in the organization of the first political parties in Indonesia. The paper briefly examines the biographies of some members of the Hadhramaut aristocracy, Sayyids and Sharifs, who took a prominent place in the cultural, economic and political life of Malaysia and Indonesia in the pre-colonial and post-colonial era.

Ispahbads of Tabarestan and Convergence with Islamic Civilization

The history of Tabarestan or Mazandaran, a part of the lush and elongated expanse located between the Caspian Sea and the Alborz Mountains, has witnessed many transformations in connection with the history of Iran and Islam. Despite the Arab Muslim advance into the vast majority of Southwest Asia, due to its unique climatic conditions and distinct social characteristics, Tabarestan resisted the influence of the Islamic political system and the acceptance of the new culture and religion. One of the reasons for this resistance was the presence of independent ruling dynasties known as the Ispahbads, whose rulers outwardly accepted the sovereignty of the Arab caliphs to preserve their hereditary power, until the rise of the Alavids and Daylamites diminished their influence. This research, aiming to investigate the nature and process of political relations between the Ispahbad dynasties of Tabarestan and the Islamic Caliphate during the 7th to 10th centuries CE, employs a descriptive-analytical method to discuss the nature and reasons behind the interaction and confrontation between the local rulers of Tabarestan and the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs, seeking to uncover the hidden aspects of local history in this period. The research findings indicate that the Ispahbads of Tabarestan, by implementing a dual and pragmatic policy, sought to safeguard the ancient structure of their political system and the homogeneous fabric of their subordinate society in Tabarestan from transformation, thereby contributing to the continuity of the existing status quo. However, with the arrival of new actors, most of them ceded the field to the emerging players in the political and power arena of medieval Iran.

ՀԱՏՎԵԼ Է ԻՐԱՆԻ ՀՅՈՒՍԻՍՈՒՄ. «ՄՈՒՀՐ» ՄԱԿԱԴՐՈՇՄՆԵՐ ԱՐԾԱԹԵ ԴՐԱՄՆԵՐԻ ՎՐԱ (ԱՆԳԼ.) / STRUCK IN THE NORTH OF IRAN: “MUHR” COUNTERMARKS ON SILVER COINS

This article introduced 15 variations of countermarks that followed the “muhr + mint name” formula. The meaning and history behind this formula were discussed, and it was shown that these countermarks indicate the city in which they were struck. So, muhr is equivalent to a countermark here, and “muhr-i x” is interpreted to mean “this is the countermark of the city of x (and this mint validates and recognizes this coin).” Interestingly, these countermarks show that the word muhr / مهر was still used in northern parts of Iran until the early tenth century AH to refer to coin minting. Muhr countermarks have been found on silver coins dating back to the time of Qara Qoyunlu Jahanshah, Aq Qoyunlu Yaʻqub and Rustam, and Safavid Ismaʻil I, and were produced in at least seven mints, including Daylamistan, Fuman, Gurjiyan, Lahijan, Qazwin, Rasht, and Tonekabon. All Muhr countermarks were struck in northern cities of Iran in the modern Gilan province and the west of the Mazandaran province. Through a study of Muhr countermarks, this work has identified the Gurjiyan mint. This finding challenges the belief held by Diler and Aghili that the Gurjiyan mint was located in Georgia. By combining numismatic and historical data, our work provided a more accurate estimation of the location of the Gurjiyan mint, which is believed to be in the vicinity of the border between Gilan and Mazandaran provinces. Lastly, Muhr countermarks were struck sometime in the late ninth or early tenth century AH, and it is known that Kiya’ids played a significant role in the east of Gilan during that time, actively engaging in local conflicts and various wars. Also, their footprints can be traced to all the seven mints discussed in this article. As Mirza ʻAli was a powerful local ruler of the Kar-Kiya dynasty who was able to conquer many important cities in the north of Iran and extend his rule to various regions, it is safe to assume that Muhr countermarks were struck during his reign, the time of which corresponds well with when the countermarks were stamped.

Contribution of British Colonial Rule to the Conservation and Maintenance of Ancient Irrigation Works in Sri Lanka

The earliest irrigation system in Sri Lanka dates back to the sixth century BC. It had reached its peak of development around the twelfth century AD. With the migration of civilization to the southwest, the arid zone was overgrown and destroyed by the abandonment of ancient irrigation industries. But many of the old irrigation industries are still active today as living heritage. This was due to the conservation and maintenance are done by the local rulers as well as the colonial rulers who ruled the country. The purpose of this research was to trace the contribution of the British colonial rulers who ruled the country for more than a century to the conservation and maintenance of the ancient irrigation industry. The research problem here is what kind of conservation and maintenance was done during the British colonial rule on the ancient irrigation system of Ceylon. Because this research is based on a qualitative approach, the methodology used in the case studies used the study of archival records and documents, direct observation, and the examination of physical archeological remains. The irrigation system, which was widespread throughout the dry zone plains, was initially protected by the people who built it and by the conservation and maintenance work done by the state machinery itself. Centuries after the collapse of civilization, ancient irrigation was rediscovered and identified, and proposals for conservation were made during British colonial rule. In addition, funding for the conservation of the irrigation industry and the implementation of small and large-scale irrigation conservation programs, as well as the formulation of laws, regulations, and institutions for conservation work, were important processes during the British colonial period.

Armies of Arabia: Military Politics and Effectiveness in the Gulf

Armies of Arabia: Military Politics and Effectiveness in the Gulf