Local Option Sales Taxes Research Articles

LOST and Found in Walmart: Walmart's Effect on Local Option Sales Tax (LOSTs) Adoption and Sales Tax Revenue

Throughout the period of adoption of Local Option Sales Taxes (LOSTs) by local governments research has found many causes and associations for adoption and utilization of LOSTs. This research explores the impact that the rise of Large Supply Chain retailers, which expanded along much the same timeline as LOSTs, had on the adoption of LOSTs and collection of sales tax revenue. Leveraging LOST adoption along different timelines in three states and hundreds of Walmart openings, a Cox Proportional Hazard Model is used to estimate the impact a Walmart opening has on time to adoption of LOST at the county level. A Difference in Difference with multiple validity and robustness checks is used to estimate the impact on sales tax collection. Results indicate that a Walmart opening has a large impact on the hazard ratio—indicating it speeds time to adoption. Unsurprisingly, this leads to larger sales tax revenue collections by host jurisdictions.

All Is Not LOST in Texas? An Outcome-Oriented Analysis of Local Option Sales Tax Choices on Measures of Economic Growth

Are municipal-level local option sales taxes (LOST) in Texas associated with long-term economic development outcomes? The Texas 4a and 4b LOST options fund economic development projects managed by a dedicated municipal-level economic development corporation (EDC). Instead of short-term outputs, we consider associations with three primary long-range outcomes: property value growth, population growth, and new home construction. Three regression analyses examine economic growth between 2011 and 2015 for Texas municipalities while controlling for county-level nesting effect, local capacity, and other contextual factors. The implementation of the 4a industrial development LOST shows a small significant positive association with population growth, albeit at the .10 level. The 4a LOST is also selected as part of the optimal model for property value growth despite not being significant. Implementation of the broader 4b community development LOST is not found significant nor included in any of the three outcome-based models. In each case, the county-level nesting effect is highly associated with economic development outcomes, while municipal-level capacity measures, such as property tax collected per capita, household median income, and the percentage of 4-year college graduates also show strong associations. Municipalities more dependent on the manufacturing sector show a significant negative association with all three economic development outcomes.

Local Sales Taxes and Spending Patterns in U.S. County Governments

The fiscal effects of local (option) sales taxes (LOSTs) have remained an open question. This paper assembles a county-level dataset of all the U.S. states from 1970 to 2006, and employs two empirical methods to obtain more convincing and generalizable results. The main goal of this study is to consider the different purposes of LOSTs for county governments and examine the effects of each purpose on local spending patterns. The empirical results confirm that LOSTs help counties expand their total revenue, ownsource revenue, and total expenditure, as well as their operating and capital spending. Further findings reveal that the effects of general-purpose LOSTs (GLOSTs) differ from those of special- purpose LOSTs (SPLOSTs) on the spending patterns in county governments. SPLOSTs expand a county’s capital spending and reduce its operating spending, while GLOSTs are more helpful for expanding a county’s operating spending. The empirical findings imply that local policy-makers should consider whether it should specify a purpose before they make a decision on LOST adoption.

Analyzing voter support for California’s local option sales taxes for transportation

Local and regional governments in the U.S. rely increasingly on voter-approved local option sales taxes (LOSTs) to fund transportation capital investments, maintenance, and operations. LOSTs typically present voters with lists of local transportation projects and programs to be funded by a ¼ to 1 percent sales tax increase. Most research on LOSTs are case studies, which make generalizations about LOSTs difficult. We conducted a comprehensive, multi-jurisdictional analysis of LOST measures in California, the U.S. state with the greatest number of LOST measures. We examined 76 LOST measures put to voters between 1976 and 2016 to assess factors associated with voter support. LOSTs in California are enacted by counties, which we examined in addition to smaller intra-county geographies using both regression models and case studies. We tested several explanatory variables for association with voter support including macroeconomic and political context, planned measure expenditures, voter characteristics, and spatial distribution of proposed projects. We found that funding dedicated to public transit and returned to local jurisdictions predicts support at the county level, and that LOSTs that create new taxes—as opposed to extending or renewing existing taxes—are less popular with voters, all else equal. Our analyses of sub-county geographies revealed that political party affiliation is the strongest predictor of local voter support for LOSTs and that voters living adjacent to funded projects tended to be more supportive of LOSTs.

State Tax Policy, Municipal Choice, and Local Economic Development Outcomes: A Structural Equation Modeling Approach to Performance Assessment

AbstractDo state policies that allow municipal governments to levy economic development taxes stimulate economic development? Texas allows municipal‐level economic development corporation dedicated local option sales taxes (LOST), effectively diverting revenue from general fund purposes exclusively toward local economic development efforts. Drawing from a performance management framework focused on policy outcomes, the authors use a structural equation model to estimate the effects of local tax choices on economic development performance. The results reveal that municipalities implementing the 4a LOST tax choice (traditional industry‐related efforts) experienced a significant and positive effect on economic development as measured through a latent construct assessing five years of growth in population, property value, and new home construction. The observed impact of tax choice, though weaker than preexisting municipal economic capacity, suggests that states and municipalities can influence economic development activity by permitting municipal choice in the allocation of tax revenues dedicated to economic development.

Arguing over Transportation Sales Taxes: An Analysis of Equity Debates in Transportation Ballot Measures

What’s a fair way to pay for urban transportation? Local option sales taxes (LOSTs) for transportation are an increasingly common mechanism for locally financing transportation in the context of declining federal and state funding. LOSTs are typically regressive, raising equity concerns. But their fairness also depends on who benefits from them, based on which projects are funded, where projects are located, and when investments occur. We examine how perceptions of these four dimensions of equity (income, geographic, temporal, and modal) are represented and debated in the ballot arguments for 38 LOST elections in California. We find that measure supporters use subtle language to imply that proposed expenditure plans achieve equity on all dimensions, promising “something for everyone.” Measure opponents, by contrast, typically attack specific perceived inequities in proposed expenditure plans. We find that tradeoffs among types of equity debated in ballot arguments frame winners and losers across multiple equity dimensions.

Do State Sales Taxes Crowd Out Local Option Sales Taxes?

Abstract Currently, sales taxes are imposed at both the state and local levels in 37 US states. In these environments, vertical tax competition occurs as governments share a common sales tax base, and local jurisdictions have autonomy over sales tax rates. As cash-strapped states look to sales taxes for additional revenues, local governments may worry about potentially adverse revenue impacts, as consumers react to combined tax rate increases. This study examines state-municipal and county-municipal fiscal spillovers using an empirical approach that accounts for endogenous tax policy leadership and voter tax fatigue. Employing comprehensive longitudinal data from Oklahoma, we find that state tax hikes significantly crowd out future rate increases for the large group of jurisdictions that are designated as followers. Leader jurisdictions are not found to display crowd-out tendencies, a result that is consistent with recent work suggesting that leaders may be less influenced by vertical fiscal externalities than other jurisdictions.

Time to Adoption of Local Option Sales Taxes

This study examines the time to adoption of municipal local option sales taxes (LOSTs) in Texas from 1967 to 2012. General-purpose LOSTs were introduced in 1968 and were the only LOSTs available to local governments until 1988, when four earmarked LOSTs were permitted for municipalities. Counties and special districts were also allowed to adopt LOSTs beginning in 1988. Using a Cox proportional hazard model and a variation that allows for repeating events, this study finds that proximity to major highways and state and national borders and LOST rates within and around a municipality affect time to adoption.

Local option sales taxes and county rainy day funds

Rainy day stabilization funds (RDSFs) and local option sales taxes (LOSTs) are two strategies local governments deploy to combat fiscal stress. While the literature on both is robust, it has thus far failed to consider empirically that the two may be connected. One way the marginal LOST dollar could be spent is by saving it for future use. We test the connection with a sample of 414 counties and correct for selection bias with the Heckman correction technique. We find that each $10 increase in LOST revenue per capita is associated with a $0.10 increase in undesignated general fund balance. Though small, the positive effect size supports the theory that LOSTs contribute to a greater propensity to save.

Lost and found tax dollars: The impact of local option sales taxes on property taxes and own source revenue

The relationship between the local option sales tax (LOST) and property taxes and own source revenue is not well documented in the literature. This may be due in part to the aggregated nature of the data, which fails to capture different motivations for adoption of LOSTs. Using county-level data from 35 states, this study finds that LOSTs increase own source revenue and in some circumstances decrease property tax burdens. The primary contribution of this research is that it uses a policy variable, the LOST rate, to distinguish between the two types of counties that use their LOST revenues differently. This research represents the first step in bridging the gap between the LOST literature and the tax mix choice literature.

Local Sales Taxes as a Means of Increasing Revenues and Reducing Property Tax Burdens: An Analysis Using Propensity Score Matching

In keeping with previous literature, local option sales taxes (LOSTs) are shown to reduce property tax burdens as well as increase own source revenue, although the magnitude is larger than previously estimated. This article advances the literature by using more sophisticated econometric techniques to minimize self‐selection bias concerns. It also addresses some of the lingering questions from previous studies. Using county data from 35 states over the time period of 1983–2004, counties with LOSTs are matched to counties that have the same estimated propensity to adopt a LOST but are precluded by their states from doing so.

LOST and Found Tax Dollars: Local Option Sales Taxes, Property Taxes, and Own Source Revenue

The relationship between local option sales taxes (LOSTs) and property taxes and own source revenue is not well understood in the literature. This may be in part due to the aggregated nature of the data which fails to capture different motivations for adoption of LOSTs (Sjoquist, Walker, and Wallace 2005). Using county level data from thirty-five states, I find that LOSTs reduce property tax burden and increase own source revenue in some circumstances. When aggregating the data, my results are consistent with previous studies (Jung 2001; Sjoquist, Walker, and Wallace 2005). The primary contribution of the research presented is that I distinguish between two types of counties that use their LOST revenue differently. The first type of county uses LOST revenue to both reduce property tax burden and increase own source revenue, whereas the second type of counties use LOST revenue exclusively to increase their own source revenue. This research is the first step in bridging the LOST literature with the tax mix choice literature.

Diversificaiton toward stability? The effect of local sales taxes on own source revenue

Local governments are expanding their revenue portfolios and becoming less dependent on property taxes. It should not be assumed, however, that this diversification is increasing the stability of local governmentsʼ own source revenue, as previous research suggests. It is thus important for local government officials to know how this process will affect the stability of their own source revenue, as they are almost certainly diversifying away from a stable tax, the property tax (Groves and Kahn, 1952; McCubbins and Moule, 2010), and moving toward a more volatile tax, such as the sales tax. Using county-level data in thirty-five states, I examine the effect of local option sales taxes (LOSTs) on the volatility of own source revenue and find that greater use of LOSTs increases revenue volatility.

Divvying the Dollars

Local governments in Georgia are empowered to levy a 1 percent local option sales tax (LOST), approved by referendum at the county level and is distributed to the county and qualified municipal governments (The terms city and municipality are used interchangeably throughout this article, per OCGA 36.30.1.). Distribution shares are not based on a strict formula but rather are renegotiated at certain trigger points, including the decennial census. Using a multiple regression model, this research analyzes contextual and management factors, finding the strongest predictors of increased LOST revenue share by cities to be designation as county seat, fewer fellow municipalities, and higher reliance on LOST in the city’s total revenue stream.

STRATEGIC FISCAL INTERDEPENDENCE: COUNTY AND MUNICIPAL ADOPTIONS OF LOCAL OPTION SALES TAXES

This study contributes to the tax competition literature by investigating the determinants of local option sales tax (LOST) adoptions using a model that simultaneously accounts for the presence of horizontal and vertical fi scal interactions. We use discrete time Cox Proportional Hazard regressions to study adoption patterns for county and municipal LOSTs in an environment where municipalities were authorized to implement LOSTs nearly two decades before counties. Controlling for factors measuring fi scal stress and the jurisdiction’s ability to export its taxes, we demonstrate that both vertical and horizontal fi scal spillovers play an important role in characterizing the strategic interdependence of local governments when they tax a common retail sales base.

The sheriff of nottingham𡀙s favorite tax: How local option sales taxes exacerbate budgetary inequalities between local governments

This paper tests the theory that local option sales taxes (LOST) work to the disadvantage of poorer localities, particularly rural areas, where many residents commute to shop and work. We also hypothesize that LOST systems hurt struggling communities more than they help prospering ones. The LOST system is examined using multiple years of data from North Carolina, a state whose tax structure favors such an analysis. The results indicate that LOST systems exacerbate inequality between local communities by actively moving revenue from poorer communities to more wealthy ones. We find evidence that LOST systems cost poorer counties a greater percentage of their total budgets than is gained by the wealthy counties that attract retail activity.

Fiscal effects of local option sales taxes on school facilities funding: The case of North Carolina

Since the 1970s, the North Carolina Legislature has authorized its counties to levy four local option sales taxes (LOST). Proceeds from two of them are partially restricted for school capital needs; two other LOST are used to augment counties' general revenues that may also affect school capital funding. Experiences from other states have raised concerns that the adoption of LOST may increase inequality in school finance, but the empirical results have been mixed. Using a data set of one hundred North Carolina county school districts from 2004 to 2006, this study examines how public school facilities are funded, and investigates whether the adoption of LOST aggravates or alleviates inequality in public school capital revenues in the state.

Fiscal Effects of Local Option Sales Tax on School Facilities Funding: Evidence from North Carolina

Since the 1970s, the North Carolina Legislature has authorized its counties to levy four local option sales taxes (LOST). Proceeds from two of them are partially restricted for school capital needs; two other LOST are used to augment counties’ general revenues that may also affect school capital funding. Experiences from other states have raised concerns that the adoption of LOST may increase inequality in school finance, but the empirical results have been mixed. Using a data set of one hundred North Carolina county school districts from 2004 to 2006, this study examines how public school facilities are funded, and investigates whether the adoption of LOST aggravates or alleviates inequality in public school capital revenues in the state.

Local option sales taxes and consumer spending patterns: Fiscal interdependence under multi-tiered local taxation

Twenty US states currently allow both county and municipal governments to impose sales taxes on purchases within their jurisdictions. This study investigates the complex multi-jurisdiction and multi-tier dimensions of local option sales taxes (LOSTs) in this setting. We estimate own-rate and cross-tier elasticities using data from 1993 to 2006 for Oklahoma municipalities and counties. Using a variety of panel data techniques including first differenced and random trends models, we show both are significant determinants of consumer spending patterns. Additionally, accounting for localized tax rate differentials reveals important nuances in the interpretation of cross-tier and own-rate elasticities. Our results suggest that municipal LOST revenues can be significantly affected by the rate setting decisions of parent counties as well as nearby regional retail centers. Therefore, the ability of municipal governments to control LOST revenues by varying their own LOST rate is affected by both vertical and horizontal fiscal spillovers. Understanding the nature of fiscal interdependence in this setting is important for the 34 US states that authorize some form of LOSTs as well as any considering their implementation.

The Effect of Local Option Sales Taxes on Local Sales

Because retail sales taxes generate substantial revenue for many local governments, public officials contemplating differential local option tax rates must carefully assess the potential impacts of such decisions on purchasing decisions. The authors use a unique pooled time series to examine these impacts and apply a methodology that permits an analysis of the effects on purchasing decisions of sales tax rate differences across numerous consumer goods. The results indicate that the response to sales tax rate differences depends on the general characteristics of the goods being purchased. A unique variable that controls for the distance to the next significant alternative for making a purchase also provides key insights. The observed significance for this variable and its interaction with tax rates has significant public policy implications.