Local Intensity Order Pattern Research Articles

A new Copy-Move forgery detection method using LIOP

The most prevalent type of digital image falsification occurs when a portion of a image is copied and pasted onto another section of the same image. Falsification of the image made in this way is called copy-move forgery (CMF). This study presents a new and effective approach for copy-move forgery detection (CMFD) using the Local Intensity Order Pattern (LIOP) to overcome the restrictions of existing CMFD techniques. The input image is first converted to a YCbCr color space and then split into Y, Cb, and Cr color channels. The LIOP features are then extracted from each color channel and all the features are combined. The feature vectors are ordered lexicographically and related features are detected by comparing the LIOP features. Although the LIOP feature has rarely been used in CMFD prior to this study, the success rate of the proposed method is high. In addition, since the channels are not correlated to each other in the YCbCr color space, each color channel is considered as a gray image, and the success rate is increased by combining the features extracted from each of the color channels. The proposed approach was assessed using the CoMoFoD and GRIP datasets. Experimental findings demonstrated that the suggested method was successful and displayed robustness in post-processing attacks.

Passive Framework of Sparse Region Duplication Detection from Digital Images

Currently, digital images are widely communicated by media using social media applications. The general public captures the digital images for preserving the family and personal memories and to share with their friends and family. Digital images have been used extensively in forensic science to present the digital images as proof in the court and law enforcement agencies, which present a loophole for the culprits to forge the digital image and change the proofs and evidence. Copy-move forgery (CMF) is among the most widely employed image manipulation methods. In this method, the area of the image is duplicated to some other part to modify its content by applying different postprocessing operations on images like blurring, color reduction, and scaling which is a challenging research problem in copy-move forgery detection (CMFD). In this paper, an efficient and effective CMFD method is presented to identify the single and multiple altered areas in an image in the presence of postprocessing operations. The proposed CMFD method divides the image into circular blocks. It computes a rotation-invariant feature vector from each circular block of the image by applying local intensity order pattern (LIOP) features. The computed feature vectors are then compared using Euclidean distance to locate the suspected image’s forged areas. The experimental results of the proposed CMFD method are reported on three standard datasets of the CMF, namely, CoMoFoD, KLTCI, and MICC-F220. The experimental analysis of the proposed CMFD method on these datasets indicates that it produces robust performance (detection accuracies of 97.29% on the CoMoFoD dataset, 98.53% on the KLTCI dataset, and 97.57% on the MICC-F220 dataset) as compared with state-of-the-art CMFD methods in terms of the standard performance evaluation parameters of the CMF.

Copy Move Forgery Detection based on double matching

Copy Move is a technique widespreadly used in digital image tampering, meaning Copy Move Forgery Detection (CMFD) is still a significant research. In this paper, a novel CMFD method is proposed, including double matching process and region localizing process. In double matching process, the first matching is conducted on Delaunay triangles consisting of Local Intensity Order Pattern (LIOP) keypoints, to find the approximate location of suspicious regions. In order to find sufficient keypoint pairs, the existing set of matching triangles is expanded by adding their neighbors iteratively, covering the whole tampered regions, and the second matching with a looser threshold is conducted on the vertices. In the region localizing process, considering the case of multiple copies, Density-Based Spatial Clustering of Applications with Noise (DBSCAN) is used to classify the keypoint pairs described in a new model. Experimental results indicate that the proposed method, with good robustness, outperforms some state-of-the-art methods.

Localization and classification of human facial emotions using local intensity order pattern and shape-based texture features

Facial emotion recognition system (FERS) recognize the person’s emotions based on various image processing stages including feature extraction as one of the major processing steps. In this study, we presented a hybrid approach for recognizing facial expressions by performing the feature level fusion of a local and a global feature descriptor that is classified by a support vector machine (SVM) classifier. Histogram of oriented gradients (HoG) is selected for the extraction of global facial features and local intensity order pattern (LIOP) to extract the local features. As HoG is a shape-based descriptor, with the help of edge information, it can extract the deformations caused in facial muscles due to changing emotions. On the contrary, LIOP works based on the information of pixels intensity order and is invariant to change in image viewpoint, illumination conditions, JPEG compression, and image blurring as well. Thus both the descriptors proved useful to recognize the emotions effectively in the images captured in both constrained and realistic scenarios. The performance of the proposed model is evaluated based on the lab-constrained datasets including CK+, TFEID, JAFFE as well as on realistic datasets including SFEW, RaF, and FER-2013 dataset. The optimal recognition accuracy of 99.8%, 98.2%, 93.5%, 78.1%, 63.0%, 56.0% achieved respectively for CK+, JAFFE, TFEID, RaF, FER-2013 and SFEW datasets respectively.

Copy-move forgery detection based on local intensity order pattern and maximally stable extremal regions

Copy-move forgery detection based on local intensity order pattern and maximally stable extremal regions

Copy move forgery detection based on keypoint and patch match

Copy move has become a simple and effective operation for image forgeries due to the advancement of image editing software, which is still challenging to be detected. In this paper, a novel method is proposed for copy move forgery detection based on Keypoint and Patch Match. Local Intensity Order Pattern (LIOP), a robust keypoint descriptor, is combined with SIFT to obtain reliable keypoints. After using g2NN to match the extracted keypoints, a new matched keypoint pair description model and a density grid-based filtering strategy are applied to removing the redundancy matched keypoint pairs. Finally an enhanced patch match approach is utilized to examine the matched keypoint pairs to accurately determine the existence of forgery. Compared with the state-of-the-art methods, the proposed method can detect copy move region more precisely according to the experimental result, even when detected objects are distorted by some processing such as rotation, scaling, JPEG compression and additional noise.

A novel method for content-based image retrieval to improve the effectiveness of the bag-of-words model using a support vector machine

The advancements in the multimedia technologies result in the growth of the image databases. To retrieve images from such image databases using visual attributes of the images is a challenging task due to the close visual appearance among the visual attributes of these images, which also introduces the issue of the semantic gap. In this article, we recommend a novel method established on the bag-of-words (BoW) model, which perform visual words integration of the local intensity order pattern (LIOP) feature and local binary pattern variance (LBPV) feature to reduce the issue of the semantic gap and enhance the performance of the content-based image retrieval (CBIR). The recommended method uses LIOP and LBPV features to build two smaller size visual vocabularies (one from each feature), which are integrated together to build a larger size of the visual vocabulary, which also contains complementary features of both descriptors. Because for efficient CBIR, the smaller size of the visual vocabulary improves the recall, while the bigger size of the visual vocabulary improves the precision or accuracy of the CBIR. The comparative analysis of the recommended method is performed on three image databases, namely, WANG-1K, WANG-1.5K and Holidays. The experimental analysis of the recommended method on these image databases proves its robust performance as compared with the recent CBIR methods.

Scene search based on the adapted triangular regions and soft clustering to improve the effectiveness of the visual-bag-of-words model

The storage size of the image and video repositories are growing day by day due to the extensive use of digital image acquisition devices. The position of an object within an image is obtained by analyzing the content-based properties like shape, texture, and color, while compositional properties present the image layout and include the photographic rule of composition. The high-quality images are captured on the basis of the rule of thirds that divide each image into nine square areas. According to this rule, salient objects of an image are placed on the intersection points or along the imagery lines of the grid to capture the position of the salient objects. To improve image retrieval performance, visual-bag-of-words (VBoW) framework-based image representation is widely used nowadays. According to this framework, the spatial relationship between salient objects of an image is lost due to the formation of a global histogram of the image. This article presents a novel adapted triangular area-based technique, which computes local intensity order pattern (LIOP) features, weighted soft codebooks, and triangular histograms from the four triangular areas of each image. The proposed technique adds the spatial contents from four adapted triangular areas of each image to the inverted index of the VBoW framework, solve overfitting problem of the larger sizes of the codebook, and overwhelmed the problem of the semantic gap. The experimental results and statistical analysis performed on five image collections show an encouraging robustness of the proposed technique that is compared with the recent CBIR techniques.

A Novel Technique Based on Visual Words Fusion Analysis of Sparse Features for Effective Content-Based Image Retrieval

Content-based image retrieval (CBIR) is a mechanism that is used to retrieve similar images from an image collection. In this paper, an effective novel technique is introduced to improve the performance of CBIR on the basis of visual words fusion of scale-invariant feature transform (SIFT) and local intensity order pattern (LIOP) descriptors. SIFT performs better on scale changes and on invariant rotations. However, SIFT does not perform better in the case of low contrast and illumination changes within an image, while LIOP performs better in such circumstances. SIFT performs better even at large rotation and scale changes, while LIOP does not perform well in such circumstances. Moreover, SIFT features are invariant to slight distortion as compared to LIOP. The proposed technique is based on the visual words fusion of SIFT and LIOP descriptors which overcomes the aforementioned issues and significantly improves the performance of CBIR. The experimental results of the proposed technique are compared with another proposed novel features fusion technique based on SIFT-LIOP descriptors as well as with the state-of-the-art CBIR techniques. The qualitative and quantitative analysis carried out on three image collections, namely, Corel-A, Corel-B, and Caltech-256, demonstrate the robustness of the proposed technique based on visual words fusion as compared to features fusion and the state-of-the-art CBIR techniques.

Robust method for interest region description based on local intensity binary pattern

This paper proposes a robust method based on a local intensity binary pattern for interest feature description. To avoid estimating reference orientation, local features were calculated on a rotation invariant system. Different from the local binary patterns (LBP) and center-symmetric-LBP operator, our proposed local circular contrast pattern (LCCP) operator calculates a local binary feature by comparing the relative intensity order information of each two adjacent elements in the sequence consisting of the sampling point and its neighboring points. To evaluate the performance of our proposed descriptor LCCP and other existing descriptors (e.g., scale-invariant feature transform, DAISY, HRI-CSLTP, multisupport region order-based gradient histogram-single, local intensity order pattern), image matching experiments were first conducted on the Oxford dataset, additional image pairs with complex light changes, image sequences with different noise, and three-dimensional objects dataset. To further evaluate the discriminative ability of local descriptors, a simple object recognition experiment was carried out on three public datasets. The experimental results show that our descriptor LCCP exhibits a better performance and robustness than other evaluated descriptors.

Object classification using a local texture descriptor and a support vector machine

Objects classification or object detection is one of the most challenging tasks in computer vision. Digital images taken of real-life scenes capture objects at different positions, rotations and scales. Furthermore, variations in lighting, shape, color and texture within the same class make object classification a huge obstacle for computer vision algorithms. The most robust methodologies related to variations in lighting, rotation, color and scale, are based on “key points” localization, followed by applying a local descriptor to each surrounding region. Researchers have used various methods for detecting key points and have applied various local descriptors. Of these, the Scale-Invariant Feature Transform (SIFT), Speeded Up Robust Features (SURF) and Center-Symmetric Local Binary Pattern (CS-LBP) methods have obtained good performance and are associated with clustering algorithms or histogram representation based on independent features (Bag of Features (BoF)). In the BoF approach, the visual codebook extracted around the “key points” regions can effectively describe objects by their appearance based on local texture analysis. Recently, we proposed two new texture descriptors for object detection based on the Local Mapped Pattern (LMP) approach. The Mean-Local Mapped Pattern (M-LMP) and the Center Symmetric Local Mapped Pattern (CS-LMP) exhibit better performance than SIFT and CS-LBP, but prior results have shown that the size of descriptors could be reduced without loss of sensitivity. In this paper, we investigated reducing the size of the M-LMP descriptor and then evaluating its performance for object classification by a Support Vector Machine (SVM) classifier. In our experiments, we implemented an object recognition system based on the M-LMP reduced descriptor, and compared our results against the SIFT, Local Intensity Order Pattern (LIOP) and CS-LMP descriptors. The object classification results were analyzed using a BoF model and a SVM classifier, with the result that performance using the reduced descriptor is better than the other three well-known methods tested and also requires less processing time.

Exploring Local and Overall Ordinal Information for Robust Feature Description.

This paper aims to build robust feature descriptors by exploring intensity order information in a patch. To this end, the local intensity order pattern(LIOP) and the overall intensity order pattern(OIOP) are proposed to effectively encode intensity order information of each pixel in different aspects. Specifically, LIOP captures the local ordinal information by using the intensity relationships among all the neighbouring sampling points around a pixel, while OIOP exploits the coarsely quantized overall intensity order of these sampling points. These two kinds of patterns are then separately aggregated into different ordinal bins, leading to two kinds of feature descriptors. Furthermore, as these two kinds of descriptors could encode complementary ordinal information, they are combined together to obtain a discriminative and compact mixed intensity order patterndescriptor. All these descriptors are constructed on the basis of relative relationships of intensities in a rotationally invariant way, making them be inherently invariant to image rotation and any monotonic intensity changes. Experimental results on image matching and object recognition are encouraging, demonstrating the superiorities of our descriptors over the state of the art.

Performance evaluation of local descriptors and distance measures on benchmarks and first-person-view videos for face identification

Face identification (FI) has made significant amount of progress in the last three decades. Its application is now moving towards wearable devices (like Google Glass and mobile devices) leading to the problem of FI on first-person-views (FPV) or ego-centric videos for scenarios like business networking, memory assistance, etc. In the existing literature, performance analysis of various image descriptors on FPV data is little known. In this paper, we evaluate six popular image descriptors: local binary patterns (LBP), scale invariant feature transform (SIFT), local phase quantization (LPQ), local intensity order pattern (LIOP), histogram of oriented gradients (HOG) and binarized statistical image features (BSIF) and ten different distance measures: Euclidean, Cosine, Chi square, Spearman, Cityblock, Minkowski, Correlation, Hamming, Jaccard and Chebychev with first nearest neighbor (1-NN) and support vector machines (SVM) as classifiers for FI task on both benchmark databases: FERET, AR, GT and FPV database collected using wearable devices like Google Glass (GG). Comparative analysis on these databases using various descriptors shows the superiority of BSIF with Cosine, Chi square and Cityblock distance measures using 1-NN as classifier over other descriptors and distance measures and even some of the current state-of-art benchmark database results.

Remote Sensing Image Matching Based on Adaptive Binning SIFT Descriptor

Image matching based on local invariant features is crucial for many photogrammetric and remote sensing applications such as image registration and image mosaicking. In this paper, a novel local feature descriptor named adaptive binning scale-invariant feature transform (AB-SIFT) for fully automatic remote sensing image matching that is robust to local geometric distortions is proposed. The main idea of the proposed method is an adaptive binning strategy to compute the local feature descriptor. The proposed descriptor is computed on a normalized region defined by an improved version of the prominent Hessian affine feature extraction algorithm called the uniform robust Hessian affine algorithm. Unlike common distribution-based descriptors, the proposed descriptor uses an adaptive histogram quantization strategy for both location and gradient orientations, which is robust and actually resistant to a local viewpoint distortion and extremely increases the discriminability and robustness of the final AB-SIFT descriptor. In addition to the SIFT descriptor, the proposed adaptive quantization strategy can be easily extended for other distribution-based descriptors. Experimental results on both synthetic and real image pairs show that the proposed AB-SIFT matching method is more robust and accurate than state-of-the-art methods, including the SIFT, DAISY, the gradient location and orientation histogram, the local intensity order pattern, and the binary robust invariant scale keypoint.

Fast representation based on a double orientation histogram for local image descriptors.

In recent years, extensive research on local invariant features has been conducted, and many novel descriptors have been developed for different scenarios. Frequently, these descriptors can offer unique advantages (such as stability, precision, and speed) for select applications but perform unsatisfactorily from a comprehensive perspective. Consequently, a novel local image descriptor, named fast representation using a double orientation histogram (FRDOH), is developed in this paper based on existing descriptors. First, a region is divided using intensity order (as in the local intensity order pattern descriptor) to encode spatial information. Then, the discriminability of the descriptor is enhanced using our proposed double orientation histogram. Second, to further improve the discriminability of the descriptor, the Hellinger distance is used to balance the effects of large and small bins in the histogram for the similarity measure of features. Finally, a novel interpolation strategy known as rapidly cascaded interpolation is used to calculate the intensity of the neighboring points to reduce the computation time, while achieving high precision. The performance of the developed descriptor is evaluated via numerous experiments on the affine covariant feature data set of the Oxford data set, a subset of a 3D object data set, and a subset of the IIT Delhi Touchless Palmprint data set. These experiments demonstrate that the developed FRDOH descriptor outperforms the state-of-the-art descriptors in terms of comprehensive performance.

Rotation and illumination invariant interleaved intensity order-based local descriptor.

The region descriptors using local intensity ordering patterns have become more popular recent years for image matching due to its enhanced discriminative ability. However, the dimension of these descriptors increases rapidly with the slight increase in the number of local neighbors under consideration and becomes unreasonable for image matching due to time constraint. In this paper, we reduce the dimension of the descriptor and matching time significantly while keeping up the comparable performance by considering the number of neighboring sample points in an interleaved manner. The proposed interleaved order based local descriptor (IOLD) considers the local neighbors of a pixel as a set of interleaved neighbors and constructs the descriptor over each set separately and finally combines them to produce a single pattern. We extract the local ordering pattern to cope up with the illumination effect in an inherent rotation invariant manner. The novelty lies with using multiple neighboring sets in an interleaved fashion. We also explored the local intensity order pattern in a multisupport-region scenario. Results are compared over three challenging and widely adopted image matching data sets with other prominent descriptors under various image transformations. Results based on experiments suggest that the proposed IOLD descriptor outperforms in terms of both improved matching performance and reduced matching time. We also found that the amount of improvement is significant under complex illumination difference while showing more robustness toward noise.

Automatic grading of placental maturity based on LIOP and fisher vector.

Currently, the evaluation of placental maturity has mainly focused on subjective measure, which highly depends on the observation and experiences of the clinicians and not reliable. This paper proposes a new method for grading placenta maturity in B-mod ultrasound (US) images automatically based on local intensity order pattern (LIOP) and fisher vector (FV). After extracting invariant LIOP feature from the affine covariant region, the feature is encoded by FV to improve the classification accuracy and reduce the processing time. Experimental results show the effectiveness of the proposed method with an accuracy of 0.9375, a sensitivity of 0.9804 and a specificity of 0.9375 for the placental maturity grading. Moreover, experimental results demonstrate that the LIOP feature outperforms the traditional SIFT feature for grading.