Local Geographic Variation Research Articles

Local and regional geographic variation in inducible defenses.

Invasive predators can cause substantial evolutionary change in native prey populations. Although invasions by predators typically occur over large scales, their distributions are usually characterized by substantial spatiotemporal heterogeneity that can lead to patchiness in the response of native prey species. Our ability to understand how local variation shapes patterns of inducible defense expression has thus far been limited by insufficient replication of populations within regions. Here, we examined local and regional variation in the inducible defenses of 12 native marine snail (Littorina obtusata) populations within two geographic regions in the Gulf of Maine that are characterized by vastly different contact histories with the invasive predatory green crab (Carcinus maenas). When exposed in the field to waterborne risk cues from the green crab for 90 days, snails expressed plastic increases in shell thickness that reduced their vulnerability to this shell-crushing predator. Despite significant differences in contact history with this invasive predator, snail populations from both regions produced similar levels of shell thickness and shell thickness plasticity in response to risk cues. Such phenotypic similarity emerged even though there were substantial geographic differences in the shell thickness of juvenile snails at the beginning of the experiment, and we suggest that it may reflect the effects of warming ocean temperatures and countergradient variation. Consistent with plasticity theory, a trend in our results suggests that southern snail populations, which have a longer contact history with the green crab, paid less in the form of reduced tissue mass for thicker shells than northern populations.

Local Geographic Variations in Children’s School Readiness - A Multilevel Analysis of the Development Gaps in England

The educational attainment levels of children in state-funded schools in England are lower than in many countries with comparable levels of economic development. There are also striking differences at the local level across England. To understand these differences it is important to examine children’s development in their early years. This research uses multilevel analysis of the National Pupil Database to investigate child development at ages 4 and 5 years old at the individual, school and local levels including within a case study urban area. Child development is assessed using teachers’ observations to measure what is termed School Readiness. This is based on a child’s communication, literacy and numeracy skills and their physical, personal and social development. The findings reveal substantial differences in School Readiness at the individual, school and local area levels including in terms of sex, ethnic background, age in the school year, welfare benefit entitlement and local area income deprivation level. Such differences are also evident across the separate Early Learning Goals that are used to assess School Readiness. Between local areas children with similar backgrounds can vary considerably in their likelihood of being categorised as School Ready. Many children face multiple disadvantages as a consequence of different interlinked factors including where they live. The gap in the levels of School Readiness has long-term implications for the individuals themselves and for society more widely. Whilst increasing the levels of School Readiness is a key target in the UK Government’s Levelling Up policy, tackling the stark inequalities will take considerable investment, highly targeted support and engagement across the home and school learning environments.

Spatial and temporal patterns of indicators of climate change and variability in the Arab world in the past four decades

A comprehensive assessment of the spatial and temporal patterns of the most common indicators of climate change and variability in the Arab world in the past four decades was carried out. Monthly maximum and minimum air temperature and precipitation amount data for the period 1980–2018 were obtained from the CHELSA project with a resolution of 1 km2, which is suitable for detecting local geographic variations in climatic patterns. This data was analyzed using a seasonal-Kendall metric, followed by Sen’s slope analysis. The findings indicate that almost all areas of the Arab world are getting hotter. Maximum air temperatures increased by magnitudes varying from 0.027 to 0.714 °C/decade with a mean of 0.318 °C/decade while minimum air temperatures increased by magnitudes varying from 0.030 to 0.800 °C/decade with a mean of 0.356 °C/decade. Most of the Arab world did not exhibit clear increasing or decreasing precipitation trends. The remaining areas showed either decreasing or increasing precipitation trends. Decreasing trends varied from −0.001 to −1.825 kg m−2/decade with a mean of −0.163 kg m−2/decade, while increasing trends varied from 0.001 to 4.286 kg m−2/decade with a mean of 0.366 kg m−2/decade. We also analyzed country-wise data and identified areas of most vulnerability in the Arab world.

Exploring the Influence of Small-Scale Geographical and Seasonal Variations Over the Microbial Diversity in a Poly-extreme Athalosaline Wetland

Microorganisms are the most diverse life form on the planet and are critical for maintaining the geochemical cycles, especially in extreme environments. Bacterial communities are dynamic and respond directly to changes in abiotic conditions; among these communities, poly-extremophiles are particularly sensitive to perturbations due to their high specialization. Salar de Huasco is a high-altitude wetland located on the Chilean Altiplano exhibiting several conditions considered extreme for life, including negative water balance, extreme variations in temperature and pH values, high UV radiation, and the presence of various toxic metal(oids). However, previous reports have revealed a diverse bacterial community that has adapted to these conditions, here, we aimed to determine whether microbial community diversity and composition changed in response to geographical and seasonal variations. We found that there are significant differences in diversity, abundance, and composition in bacterial taxa that could be attributed to local geographical and seasonal variations, which in turn, can be associated with microbial traits. In conclusion, in this poly-extreme environment, small-scale changes can trigger significant changes in the microbial communities that maintain basic biogeochemical cycles. Further in depth analysis of microbial functionality and geo-ecological dynamics are necessary to better understand the relationships between seasonal changes and bacterial communities.

Geographically skewed recruitment and COVID-19 seroprevalence estimates: a cross-sectional serosurveillance study and mathematical modelling analysis

ObjectivesConvenience sampling is an imperfect but important tool for seroprevalence studies. For COVID-19, local geographic variation in cases or vaccination can confound studies that rely on the geographically skewed recruitment...

VV-ECMO in severe COVID-19: multidimensional perspectives on the use of a complex treatment

VV-ECMO in severe COVID-19: multidimensional perspectives on the use of a complex treatment

Model-based community health surveillance via multilevel small area estimation using state behavioral risk factor surveillance system (BRFSS): a case study in Connecticut

PurposeThe main objective of state behavioral risk factor surveillance system (BRFSS) is to produce reliable state-level estimates of various population health outcomes. A multilevel Regression and Post-stratification (MRP) methodology for small area estimation has been applied to the 500 Cities Project to provide population estimates at both city-level and census tract-level using national BRFSS data. To date, MRP has not been applied to any state BRFSS to produce health data at local geographic areas. In addition, the use of single year BRFSS might produce temporary inconsistency in small area estimates (SAEs). The predicted standard errors (SEs) and confidence intervals (CIs) of SAEs using Monte Carlo simulation could be substantially underestimated or overestimated. MethodsBy extending the current MRP approach and applying a parametric bootstrapping approach to Connecticut BRFSS (CT BRFSS), we were able to produce SAEs as well as SEs and CIs of SAEs for Connecticut counties and towns. We also applied this model to 5-year CT BRFSS (2011–2015) with an aim to improve the temporary consistency of SAEs. ResultsBoth single-year and 5-year estimates with SEs and CIs were generated for six selected population health indicators at town, county and state levels. Model-based SAEs were internally evaluated by comparing to single-year and 5-year direct BRFSS survey (2011–2015). SAEs were also externally validated when external data were available. ConclusionsModel-based SAEs are valid and could be used to characterize local geographic variations using single state BRFSS data.

Physical activity environment inside and outside school and youth fitness: A spatial analysis at the level of elementary school attendance zone in Georgia

The present study investigates the spatial correlation between built and natural environments that promote physical activity (PA) and children’s fitness. Previous work has been conducted on various geographic scales such as from a county level. However, evaluations from a school attendance zone level, which are the policy and program administration units for schools, have yet to be investigated. Using a factor analysis, 24 PA-related environmental variables were reduced to six environmental factors and then run factors with geographically weighted regression (GWR) at the level of the elementary school attendance zones (ESAZ) in Georgia. The outside-school environmental factors (park, recreation, terrain, nature and camping) and inside school environmental factor (school PA time) were constructed by ESAZ. We found that of all the PA environment factors, the most highly associated with promoting PA and children’s fitness were inside-school PA environment. The outside factors of the park and terrain environment indicated strong local geographic variation in youth health. The result showed local variation in the association between PA environment and fitness among elementary school children in Georgia and highlighted the geographically customized efforts for different regions’ policy changes to improve child health.

Prevalence and resting behaviour of dengue vectors, Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus in dengue high risk urban settings in Colombo, Sri Lanka

• Aedes aegypti is the predominant vector in urban areas of the Colombo district. • Ae. aegypti adult density correlates with climatic factors such as monthly rainfall and mean temperature. • Ae. aegypti adult density positively correlates with the one-month lagged dengue case number. • Ae. aegypti preferred indoor resting areas in urban areas were bedrooms and living rooms. Understanding local geographical variation in vector density and bionomics related to virus transmission are critical for planning effective vector control programs to control dengue virus transmission. This study investigated the prevalence and resting behaviour of Aedes aegypti and Ae. albopictus in three dengue high-risk areas in the Colombo District, Sri Lanka. Monthly sampling of resting adult mosquitoes was conducted from August 2019 to February 2020. Thirty-seven percent of the households (289/776) harboured Aedes mosquitoes, and 603 Aedes mosquitoes were collected. The proportion of Ae. aegypti was higher in the overall collection during the collection period (94% [569/603]), and 62% (352/569) were females. Significant monthly variations in Ae. aegypti were observed with respect to the indices: number of females per surveyed house (F/SH; p = 0.001), number of females per Aedes positive house (F/PH; p = 0.029), adult house index (AHI; p = 0.001), adult density (AD; p = 0.005) and resting ratio (RR; p = 0.001). AHI, AD, and RR had statistically significant positive correlations with monthly rainfall (p = 0.001, p = 0.011, and p = 0.002 respectively) and one-month lagged dengue cases (p = 0.002, p = 0.005, and p < 0.001 respectively). A statistically significantly higher proportion of Ae. aegypti females were caught resting indoors (N = 309, 88%) than outdoors (N = 43, 12%; p < 0.001). The most common resting areas were bedrooms (51%) & living/dining rooms (37%), and places were under or on furniture (47%) & hangings (34%) for Ae. aegypti . Conversely, 74% of female Ae. albopictus were collected outdoors. Results of this study could have strong implications to improve vector surveillance and control by early detection of dengue to detect outbreaks and minimization of disease transmission.

Parched and impatient: Political engagement after drought

How does local experience of climate change alter voters' policy preferences and voting decisions? After exposure to a climate disaster, voters may elect politicians prioritising robust disaster prevention policies, or conversely, immediate economic relief. In turn, elected representatives will either mitigate or exacerbate the severity of future climate events. In this study, I leverage a climate event with a high degree of local geographic variation – a pre-election drought in Australia – to see how it shaped political beliefs and behaviours in 2019. Using a longitudinal panel survey, I show that voters in drought-exposed areas increasingly prioritised individual economic security, rather than broader climate-mitigation policies. Moreover, I find that regional micro-parties in drought-affected regions gained vote share. In other words, voters at the front-lines of climate change sought out immediate and local economic relief. Unless local politicians can propose climate policies with short-term economic benefits, disasters may limit governments' capacities to pursue long-term climate resilience.

Local Geographic Variation of Periodontitis and Self-Reported Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

ooth loss, periodontitis, Type 2 diabetes mellitus, age, race/ethnicity and gender are all correlated, and previous researchers developed mathematical models suggesting geographic disparities for these conditions for the Inland Empire region of California. By performing geospatial analysis of the medical charts from patients attending the dental center of the Western University of Health Sciences, the researchers provide further evidence for geographic health disparities to the ZIP code level in the northern half of the Inland Empire.

Song learning by prairie warblers: When, where, and from whom

AbstractSongbirds of many species acquire their songs by imitating the songs of conspecific singers. Conclusive evidence of such imitation comes from controlled laboratory studies, but such studies do not reveal when and where songbirds learn their songs under natural conditions. To determine the timing and location of song learning in a population of prairie warblers, we compared the songs of yearling prairie warblers of known hatching location to the songs of other birds in the yearlings' natal and first breeding areas. The comparisons yielded a likely model song (and model singer) for each of the song types used by the focal yearlings. We supplemented our findings from the song comparisons with inferences drawn from an analysis of local geographic variation in songs. This analysis revealed that shared song types showed no tendency to be geographically clustered within the study area. Taken together, our data suggest that prairie warblers learn their songs during the hatch year, at locations somewhat distant (mean distance 1,437 m) from their natal site, most likely as birds wander about during the post‐fledging period.

Epidemic cystic and alveolar echinococcosis in Kyrgyzstan: an analysis of national surveillance data

Human cystic and alveolar echinococcosis are among the priority neglected zoonotic diseases for which WHO advocates control. The incidence of both cystic echinococcosis and alveolar echinococcosis has increased substantially in the past 30 years in Kyrgyzstan. Given the scarcity of adequate data on the local geographical variation of these focal diseases, we aimed to investigate within-country incidence and geographical variation of cystic echinococcosis and alveolar echinococcosis at a high spatial resolution in Kyrgyzstan. We mapped all confirmed surgical cases of cystic echinococcosis and alveolar echinococcosis reported through the national echinococcosis surveillance system in Kyrgyzstan between Jan 1, 2014, and Dec 31, 2016, from nine regional databases. We then estimated crude surgical incidence, standardised incidence, and standardised incidence ratios (SIRs) of primary cases (ie, excluding relapses) based on age and sex at country, region, district, and local community levels. Finally, we tested the SIRs for global and local spatial autocorrelation to identify disease hotspots at the local community level. All incidence estimates were calculated per 100 000 population and averaged across the 3-year study period to obtain annual estimates. The surveillance system reported 2359 primary surgical cases of cystic echinococcosis and 546 primary surgical cases of alveolar echinococcosis. Country-level crude surgical incidence was 13·1 per 100 000 population per year for cystic echinococcosis and 3·02 per 100 000 population per year for alveolar echinococcosis. At the local community level, we found annual crude surgical incidences up to 176 per 100 000 population in Sary-Kamysh (Jalal-Abad region) for cystic echinococcosis and 246 per 100 000 population in Uch-Dobo (Alay district, Osh region) for alveolar echinococcosis. Significant hotspots of cystic echinococcosis were found in four regions: Osh (five local communities in Uzgen district and four in Alay district), Naryn (three local communities in Jumgal district and one in Naryn district), Talas (three local communities in Talas district), and Chuy (one local community in Jayyl district). Significant alveolar echinococcosis hotspots were detected in the Osh region (11 communities in Alay district, including the local community of Sary Mogol, and one in Chong-Alay district) and in the Naryn region (five communities in Jumgal district and three in At-Bashy district), in the southwest and centre of the country. Our analyses reveal remarkable within-country variation in the surgical incidence of cystic echinococcosis and alveolar echinococcosis in Kyrgyzstan. These high-resolution maps identify precise locations where interventions and epidemiological research should be targeted to reduce the burden of human cystic echinococcosis and alveolar echinococcosis. Swiss National Science Foundation.

Stagnating National Declines in Stroke Mortality Mask Widespread County-Level Increases, 2010-2016.

Background and Purpose- Recent national and state-level trends show a stalling or reversal of previously declining stroke death rates. These national trends may mask local geographic variation and changes in stroke mortality. We assessed county-level trends in stroke mortality among adults aged 35 to 64 and ≥65 years. Methods- We used data from National Vital Statistics Systems and a Bayesian multivariate space-time conditional autoregressive model to estimate age-standardized annual stroke death rates for 2010 through 2016 among middle-aged adults (35-64 years) and older adults (≥65 years) in US counties. We used log-linear regression models to estimate average annual and total percent change in stroke mortality during the period. Results- Nationally, the annual percent change in stroke mortality from 2010 to 2016 was -0.7% (95% CI, -4.2% to 3.0%) among middle-aged adults and -3.5% (95% CI, -10.7% to 4.3%) among older adults, resulting in 2016 rates of 15.0 per 100 000 and 259.8 per 100 000, respectively. Increasing county-level stroke mortality was more prevalent among middle-aged adults (56.6% of counties) compared with among older adults (26.1% of counties). About half (48.3%) of middle-aged adults, representing 60.2 million individuals, lived in counties in which stroke mortality increased. Conclusions- County-level increases in stroke mortality clarify previously reported national and state-level trends, particularly among middle-aged adults. Roughly 3×as many counties experienced increases in stroke death rates for middle-aged adults compared with older adults. This highlights a need to address stroke prevention and treatment for middle-aged adults while continuing efforts to reduce stroke mortality among the more highly burdened older adults. Efforts to reverse these troubling local trends will likely require joint public health and clinical efforts to develop innovative and integrated approaches for stroke prevention and care, with a focus on community-level characteristics that support stroke-free living for all.

320 A Model for Examining Local Geographic Variations in Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest Outcomes

Out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) is a leading cause of death in the United States. Although global and national trends have been examined, geographic disparities of OHCA outcomes at local and community levels is less understood. In this study, we developed and tested a replicable, community assessment strategy aimed to identify spatial variations in OHCA outcomes using socioeconomic, out-of-hospital, and inhospital factors. Emergency medical services records of OHCA within Alachua County between 01/2012 and 01/2017 were retrospectively reviewed. Adult non-traumatic OHCA that had recorded dispatch locations and dispatch time stamps were included. These records were individually matched to medical records at the University of Florida (UF). Out-of-hospital-inhospital data and other patient-level variables were extracted from electronic medical records. Socioeconomic demographics for census tracts were extracted from 2010 Census data. Location of cardiac arrest was geocoded using ArcGIS. Primary outcomes were survival to emergency department (ED), survival to admission, survival to discharge, and discharge to home. Multiple imputation was implemented to account for incomplete records. Individual cases were nested into census tracts to develop multilevel logistic regression models in order to assess the geographic variance and probabilities of survival. Two sets of adjusted models were created for each outcome by adding patient-level and then census-level variables to test associations with survival. Chi square deviance test was applied to assess model fit of after the addition of census-level variables. Of the 1562 OHCA cases extracted from out-of-hospital records, 1335 (85.5%) cases were included and geocoded. Predicted probability of survival to ED was 0.57 (95% CI: 0.51 - 0.63). Three-hundred seventy-two patients transferred to UF and 318 (85.5%) were successfully matched to inhospital records. Predicted probabilities of survival to admission, survival to discharge, and survival to home discharge of these patients were 0.42 (95% CI: 0.36 - 0.48), 0.16 (95% CI: 0.11 - 0.23), and 0.07 (95% CI: 0.04 - 0.13), respectively. Census tracts accounted for significant variability in survival to ED, discharge, and discharge home outcomes. There was no significant geographic variation in survival to admission outcomes. Addition of census-level variables in adjusted models significantly improved model fit for survival to ED, discharge, and discharge home outcomes. Multiple modifiable patient and census-level variables of interest were identified in unadjusted and spatially adjusted models, including rural-urban differences. We identified important geographic differences that exist in outcomes of OHCA at the community level, especially in rates of survival to ED, discharge, and discharge with good neurological outcome. The methods used in this research not only identifies specific locations within a county that vary in survival rates but also explains this variation through potentially modifiable socioeconomic and out-of-hospital factors. This research represents a replicable schematic for assessing geographic variations in survival outcomes and factors that influence these outcomes in local communities.

Carbon Sequestration Anticipation Response to land use change in a mountainous karst basin in China

The present article reports an assessment of afforestation potential and anticipation of carbon sequestration in the Houzhai River Basin in Guizhou Province in southwestern China. Total of 2755 soil profiles consisting of 22,057 soil samples were collected according to a grid-sampling method at a 150 m scale in the Houzhai River basin, and the SOC contents in soil samples were analyzed using a titration method. General information regarding the geographic characteristics of each sampling grid was recorded in the field. The results indicate that land use in the Houzhai River Basin is very complex. Land use status and land use change in the study area were closely associated with local geographic characteristics and variations in economic structures. There were approximately 15.26 km2 of land that could or should be rearranged as afforestation land in the Houzhai River Basin. The increased SOC storage (0.00–1.00 m soil horizon) would be up to 5.48 × 104 Mg, 6.42 × 104 Mg, 4.77 × 104 Mg and 3.18 × 104 Mg when all of the calculated lands became shrub-grass lands, shrub lands, arbor-shrub forest lands and arbor forest lands, respectively. The increased SOC percentages would be 52.16%, 61.13%, 45.39% and 30.32%, respectively, in comparison with the present SOC storage in these lands.

Using Geographical Convergence of Obesity, Cardiovascular Disease, and Type 2 Diabetes at the Neighborhood Level to Inform Policy and Practice.

IntroductionChronic diseases are increasing across the world. Examination of local geographic variation in chronic disease patterns can enable policy makers to identify inequalities in health outcomes and tailor effective interventions to communities at higher risk. Our study aimed to determine the geographic variation of obesity, cardiovascular disease (CVD), and type 2 diabetes, using general practice clinical data. Further objectives included identifying regions of significantly high and low clusters of these conditions and assessing their association with sociodemographic characteristics.MethodsA cross-sectional approach was used to determine the prevalence of obesity, CVD, and type 2 diabetes in western Adelaide, Australia. The Getis-Ord Gi* method was used to identify significant hot spots of the conditions. Additionally, we used the Pearson correlation test to determine the association between disease clusters and risk factors, including socioeconomic status (SES), smoking history, and alcohol consumption.ResultsThe spatial distribution of obesity, CVD, and type 2 diabetes varied across communities. Hot spots of these conditions converged in 3 locations across western Adelaide. An inverse relationship was observed between area-level prevalence of CVD, obesity, and type 2 diabetes with SES.ConclusionIdentification of significant disease clusters can help policy makers to target prevention strategies at the right people, in the right location. The approach taken in our study can be applied to identify clusters of other chronic diseases across the world, wherever researchers have access to clinical data.

54 The geographical distribution of colorectal polyps in the west of ireland population

Background BowelScreen, the faecal immunochemical test based national colorectal cancer screening programme, commenced in May 2013. There is a large variation in the global distribution of colorectal cancer, but there is limited data on local geographic variations. Aim The primary aim was to investigate for local variations in geographic distribution of colorectal polyps in the UHG BowelScreen catchment area. Method All screening colonoscopies completed were analysed for the presence of advanced pathology (i.e. polyp ≥10 mm and/or ≥5 polyps detected and/or tumour detected). Only towns with a population ≥1000 as per 2011 census figures were included. Results Between 2013 and 2016; 1191 colonoscopies were included, with 790 patients having a polyp detected (67% of the total cohort) of whom 295 (25%) found to have advanced pathology. 153/1191 (13%) had polyps>10 mm in size, 153/1191 (13%) had ≥5 polyps and 32/1191 (3%) had tumours diagnosed based on endoscopic appearance. The prevalence of large polyps ranged from 3.2-32/10,000 per settlement. Similar trends were seen with respect to multiple polyps (from 0-23/10,000) and cancer (0-5/10,000). Hotspots of advanced findings were particularly notable in east Galway (Ballinasloe, Tuam, Loughrea) and mid Mayo (Swinford, Ballyhaunis, Belmullet). Conclusions There appears to be a wide local variation in the local geographic distribution of advanced colorectal polyps. This variation may be due to a combination of demographic, lifestyle, environmental or genetic differences in each area. Further study is needed, and could identify areas where bowel screen advertising could be intensified to improve participation rates and yields of endoscopy.

A statistical study of single crest phenomenon in the equatorial ionospheric anomaly region using Swarm A satellite

Though the Equatorial Ionospheric Anomaly (EIA) is represented by two crests within ±15° latitude, a single crest is also observed in the entire ionosphere. Few studies have addressed single crest phenomena. A statistical study of 2237 single crest phenomenon from the in situ electron density measurements of Swarm A satellite was investigated during December 2013–December 2015. Our analysis focused on local time, seasonal, and both geographic and geomagnetic latitudinal variations. Our results show the following observations: 1 – The maximum number of events peaks mainly in the dayside region around 0800–1200 LT and these occur mainly within the magnetic equator. 2 – The maximum amplitude of the single crests take place most prominently during equinoxes. 3 – The majority of single crests occur in the northern hemisphere. 4 – The seasonal distribution of the events shows that the summer events are located further from the magnetic equator in the northern hemisphere and shift their locations into the southern hemisphere in winter, while spring events are centered along the magnetic equator. 5 – Dayside single crest events appear close to the magnetic equator and more centered on the equator in winter season. 6 – Dawn, night and dusk side events reverse their location from northern hemisphere in summer to southern hemisphere in winter.

Local Geographic Variation of Public Services Inequality: Does the Neighborhood Scale Matter?

This study aims to explore the effect of the neighborhood scale when estimating public services inequality based on the aggregation of social, environmental, and health-related indicators. Inequality analyses were carried out at three neighborhood scales: the original census blocks and two aggregated neighborhood units generated by the spatial “k”luster analysis by the tree edge removal (SKATER) algorithm and the self-organizing map (SOM) algorithm. Then, we combined a set of health-related public services indicators with the geographically weighted principal components analyses (GWPCA) and the principal components analyses (PCA) to measure the public services inequality across all multi-scale neighborhood units. Finally, a statistical test was applied to evaluate the scale effects in inequality measurements by combining all available field survey data. We chose Quito as the case study area. All of the aggregated neighborhood units performed better than the original census blocks in terms of the social indicators extracted from a field survey. The SKATER and SOM algorithms can help to define the neighborhoods in inequality analyses. Moreover, GWPCA performs better than PCA in multivariate spatial inequality estimation. Understanding the scale effects is essential to sustain a social neighborhood organization, which, in turn, positively affects social determinants of public health and public quality of life.